Term
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Definition
belief systems that are
1) rigid: fundamental principle of stereotypes is their remarkable tendency to persist even in face of disconfirming evidence
2) negative
3) false |
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Term
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Definition
can be fueled by love/admiration for ingroup
parallel set of beliefs about groups: negative toward outgroup, positive toward ingroup |
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Term
| truth value of stereotypes |
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Definition
many are completely false
some have truth to them though:
can be gross distortions/exaggerations of reality than being totally false |
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Term
| Crandall's subjective appropriateness of stereotyping |
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Definition
rated 0, 1, or 2 based on if its okay or not okay to feel negatively toward a certain type of people
-ranking roughly seems to follow either something morally wrong has been done/perceived control over situation
blind people = low, drunk drivers = high |
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Term
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Definition
idea that attitudes toward women held by men have both positive/negative aspects
benevolent beliefs: women should be protected/cherished by men
hostile: women are not as competent/intelligent as men |
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Term
| three historically important perspectives on prejudice/stereotyping |
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Definition
-economic: identifies roots of intergroup hostility in competing interests that set groups apart form one another
-motivational: emphasizes psychological needs/wishes that lead to intergroup conflict
-cognitive: traces stereotyping's origins to same cognitive processes that enable us to categorize |
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Term
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Definition
two categories:
1) power based -->
social dominance theory: based on assumptions like all human societies are structured as systems of group based social hierarchies
3 stratification systems: age, gender, 3rd wild card category
most form of group conflict/oppression: manifestation of human predisposition to form hierarchies
2) self esteem based theories:
people want to feel better about themselves
see: Tajfel's study [next card] and ingroup favoritism |
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Term
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Definition
| tendency to show favoritism toward members of your own group |
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Term
| Tajfel and IGF [ingroup favoritism] |
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Definition
recognized multiple reasons why IGF effects are so common
• Historical context [memory for previous wars]
• Competition for scarce resources
• Familiarity
• Power/resources
Wondered whether one would still obtain evidence for IGF effects when these contributing elements are stripped away
Tajfel was taken in with the idea that mere categorization in and of itself would be sufficient to trigger IGF effects
mere categorization is important: even superifical/meaningless distinctions between people can become basis for collective identity |
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Term
| social judgment theory experiment - Tajfel |
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Definition
klee vs. kadinsky paradigm
shown paintings by 2 artists and asked which they liked best
given task to give points to a boy in their group and a boy out of the group they were paired into
tended to give more points to those in their group and increase profit their group gained over other group
self-serving bias |
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Term
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Definition
researchers create groups based on arbitrary/seemingly meaningless criteria, examine how members of minimal groups are inclined to behave to one another
findings:
1) award more rewards to members of own group relative to outgroup [interested more in maximizing relative gain for members of ingroup than in maximizing absolute gain for ingroup]
2) rate members of own group as more likable and having more positive personality traits
3) higher levels of self esteem |
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Term
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Definition
o Confederate’s last name gives away if they’re Jewish
o Candidates were all seeing same interview tape
• They found that most people who got negative feedback [gray bar], found that Jewish candidate is rated as less favorable
• When people get a blow to their self esteem due to negative feedback, they have to restore it by being mean to outgroups
• On average, non Jewish subjects restored self esteem by derogating a Jewish candidate |
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Term
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Definition
could be likely that subjects are guessing what experiment is about
tough to rule that out
IG favorotism vs. OG derogation
predictions for self esteem aren't always supported
do people ALWAYS favor ingroup?? |
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Term
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Definition
• General orientation toward categorization
o Allport
• People very often rely on categories as a basis of judgment
o Tajfel
• Similar to Allport
• Specific about which categories people use?
o Allport
• Not specific
o Tajfel
• Clear emphasis on ingroups vs. outgroup
• Driving force: mechanism
o Allport
• Simplification of a complex environment
Motivational psychologist in the sense that motivation is that people want to simplify complex environmetn
o Tajfel
• Improving self esteem |
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Term
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Definition
• negative side of it
o Older, culturally based stereotypic beliefs are represented in non-conscious [implicit] memory system; these beliefs likely to be automatically activated upon meeting a single group member]
• Positive side of it
o newer, personal beliefs are represented in conscious [explicit] memory system
o these beliefs, too, can become activated and can be used as a basis for response, but this process requires more cognitive effort
disturbing b/c people don't realize how "biased" they are
no introspection can effectively eliminate bias, part of something outside conscious awareness
not doomed to act in biased ways but places pressure on conscious beliefs to override/counterract unconscious belief system |
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Term
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Definition
| negative attitude/affective response toward certain group and individual members |
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Term
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Definition
| negative/harmful behavior directed toward members of particular groups, involves unfair treatment of others as a result of their membership in a group |
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Term
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Definition
prejudice directed at other racial groups that exists alongside rejection of explicitly racist beliefs
if situation offers no justification/disguise for discriminatory action, people's responses will conform to egalitarian values but if a rationalization is available people's racist prejudices will emerge |
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Term
| implicit association test |
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Definition
| technique for revealing unconscious prejudice toward particular groups |
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Term
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Definition
| procedure used to increase accessibility of a concept/schema |
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Term
| realistic group conflict theory |
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Definition
| group conflict, prejudice, discrimination arise over competition between groups for limited resources |
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Term
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Definition
glorifying one's own group while vilifying other groups
people in outgroup are often thought of in stereotyped ways and treated in a manner usually forbidden by one's morals |
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Term
| Sherif Robber's Cave experiment |
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Definition
boys taken to sate park: separated in teams with names and a hierarchy emerged with bossier boys on top
gave boys a tournament to see other group as a foe, insulted each other, captured and burned the other team's flag, etc. shit got real
boys who were athletic/agggressive were more popular
had them estimate who got more beans--ingroup favoritsm so they thought their group would get the most
superordinate goals: transcend interests of individual group and can be achieved more readily by 2+ groups working together
on trip home they had to do something together: hostility from 5 days of competition was erased by pursuing common goals
-neitehr differences in background etc. are necessary for intergroup hostility to develop
competition against outsiders increaes group cohesion
if we want to reduce hostility between groups, we should think of ways to get them to work together to fulfill common goals
[economic perspective] |
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Term
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Definition
| a person's self concept and self-esteem not only derive from personal identity and accomplishments but from status/accomplishments of groups to which the person belongs |
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Term
| basking in reflected glory |
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Definition
| tendency to take pride in accomplishments of those with whom we are in some way associated, like fans and a winning team |
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Term
| frustration aggression theory |
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Definition
theory that says frustration leads to aggression...
if source of frustration is the group to which prejudice and discrimination are directed, its both motivational and economic
aggression increases in direct proportion to
1) amount of satisfaction person anticipates before their goal is blocked and they are frustrated
2) more completely person is prevented from achieving goal
3) frequency at which they are blocked from achieving goal
4) closer individual believes they are to achieving the goal |
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Term
| cognitive perspective view of stereotypes |
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Definition
stereotypes are useful cognitive categories that allow us to process info efficiently
inclined to use them when we are overloaded, tired, mentally taxed in some way and need a shortcut
use stereotypes when lacking mental energy, helps conserve cognitive resources |
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Term
| outgroup homogeneity effect |
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Definition
| tendency to assume that within group similarity is much stronger for outgroups than for ingroups [we treat outgroups as representatives of their groups] |
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Term
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Definition
| we act toward members of certain groups in ways that encourage the very behavior we expect |
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Term
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Definition
| erroneous belief about a connection between events/characteristics/categories that are not in fact related |
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Term
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Definition
| pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even more because they co-occur |
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Term
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Definition
| explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole |
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Term
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Definition
| heat, gender, frustration, alcohol, mere exposure to violent stimuli, media effects, neo-association model of aggression [merely observing a violent/hostile object can trigger associations of aggression/anger] |
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Term
| freudian perspective of catharsis |
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Definition
o Catharsis: my level of aggression is lowered if you’re allowed to vent
• If person is feeling certain level, allow them to express/vent anger so that leads to lower net level of anger
o What did the data generally say
o Three different types of studies
• Participation in violent sports
Went against what they thought
• Observing sports
More aggressive after watching sports
Direct aggression toward original source
• So: venting is NOT a reliable way to reduce anger! |
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Term
| methods of reducing aggression |
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Definition
• Count to 10 slowly…lol
o Angry people act impulsively so counteract it by slowing down
o It may not make you feel less angry but it makes it less likely that you’ll act impulsively
• Explaining/communicating emotion to the other person, not venting
• Self awareness: introspecting about justification for how you are feeling
• Diffusion of anger through apology |
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Term
| video games and aggression |
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Definition
yes they make you more aggressive duh
the study where they had them play mortal kombat and found that those who played for longer gave longer/higher levels of white noise towards their competitor than those who had played golf
5 disturbing effects of violent video games:
1) increases aggressive behavior
2) reduces prosocial behavior
3) increases aggressive thoughts
4) increases aggressive emotions
5) increases blood pressure/heart rate, physiological responses associated with fighting and fleeing |
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Term
| aggression differences in north vs. south |
|
Definition
• Cultural differences b/w north and south are due to what is a culture of honor
• Can lead to higher levels of violence at least in certain contexts
• Culture of honor: culture that is defined by strong concerns about one’s own and other’s reputations, leading to sensitivity to slights and insults and greater willingness to use violence to avenge perceived wrongs or insults
• Duels are no longer common
o Example of what we mean by a culture of honor
• One segment of our society where this has been common: the south
blumenthal's study:
• To what extent does a man have a right to…
o Kill another man in self defense
• Non south: 57%
• South: 70%
o Kill a person to defend his family
• 67%: non south
• south: 80%
o kill a person to defend his house
• non-south: 18%
• south: 60%
Southerners increase in cortisol level when insulted, greater increase in testosterone than north |
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Term
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Definition
• According to Richard Dawkins (and others), apparent acts of self-sacrifice can be seen as ultimately selfish from the standpoint of your genes
• While drone ants are being self-sacrificial at the individual level, they’re being selfish at the level of the gene
• In the “burning building” scenario, a father runs in to save his child because it is his genes in the child he wants to pass along
o Gene-centered view is referred to as “kin selection” perspective: tendency for natural selection to favor behaviors that increases chances of survival o genetic relatives |
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Term
| Latane and Darley's seizure study |
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Definition
Classic demonstration of diffusion of responsibility effect: The “seizure study” by Latane & Darley (1970)
• One real subject
• “Partner” who seems to suffer an epileptic seizure
• Are in a separate booths and visually isolated from each other
• dependent variable: time to come out to report seizure
• are lead to believe there are more subjects
• greater the perceived number of other observers, the greater the delay in helping, and the less likelihood of helping at all |
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Term
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Definition
[legacy of Kitty Genovese case, which was where she was killed and neighbors just watched b/c they all thought someone else would do something. situational factors determine whether you will help someone in need]]
o Attention – people may not notice emergency
o Construal – people may not necessarily interpret it as an emergency
o Diffusion of responsibility – even if people notice and do construe it as an emergency, they may infer that someone else has already done something
• Represents an important “special case” of a conformity effect |
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Term
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Definition
behavior intended to harm another either physically or psychologically
motivated by feelings of anger/hostility |
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Term
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Definition
| behavior intended to harm another in service of motives instead of pure hostility [like to attract attention, acquire wealth, advance in life, etc] |
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Term
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Definition
passive/depressed respponses that individuals show when their goals are blocked and they are frustrated and feel they have no control over their outcomes
**example of a problem w/ frustration aggression hypothesis |
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Term
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Definition
| where rape tends to be used as an act of war against enemy women, as a ritual act, and as a threat against women so that they will remain subservient to men |
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Term
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Definition
| evolutionary tendency to look out for ourselves, offspring, and close relatives together w. their offspring so that our genes will survive |
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Term
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Definition
| unselfish behavior that benefits others w/o regard to consequences for the self |
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Term
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Definition
| benefits like praise, positive attention, tangible rewards, honors, gratitude that may be gained from helping others |
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Term
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Definition
| people are motivated ot help others in need to reduce their own distress |
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Term
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Definition
| identifying w/ another person [feeling and understanding with what they are experiencing] accompanied by intention to help person in need |
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Term
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Definition
helping a victim inan emergency by those who have observed what is happening
reduced as number of observers increases and as each observer thinks someone else will probably help |
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Term
| diffusion of responsibility |
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Definition
| reduction in a sense of urgency to help someone involved in an emergency/dangerous situation under assumption that others who are also observing the situation will help |
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Term
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Definition
| tendency to help others with expectation that they are likely to help us return at some future time |
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Term
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Definition
strategy in which individual's first move is cooperative and thereafter individual mimics other person's behavior whether it is cooperative or competitive
five factors that make this strategy so compelling:
1) cooperative, encourages mutually supportive action toward a shared goal
2) not envious: partner can do well without resorting to competitive behavior
3) not exploitable: not blindly prosocial
4) forgiving: willing to cooperate at partner's first cooperative action even after long runs of competition
5) easy to read: doesn't take people long to get it |
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Term
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Definition
focus on individual person as most meaningful unit of analysis
groups are made up of individuals |
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Term
|
Definition
focus on groups as most meaningful unit of analysis
-almost all primates live in groups
-serve functions not easily met by individiuals |
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Term
| Cooley's classic model of groups |
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Definition
primary groups: small, long term groups characterized by face to face interaction/high levels of cohesiveness, solidarity, and member identification
secondary groups: larger, less intimate, more goal focused groups typical of complex societies
limitations of this view: too simple to cover complexities of group dynamics |
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Term
| Campbell's group theory of entitativity |
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Definition
entitativity: index of "groupiness": groups can vary based on if the individuals are psycholoigically "connected" or not
high = not connected, low = very connected
• Factors that play a role in entitativity:
o Similarity
o Common fate
o Proximity
o Resistance to intrusion/impermeability
• High entitativity groups have all four criteria
indicates extent to which people feel like they belong in a meaningful group
limitation: doesn't address manner in which groups are formed |
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Term
| Arrow's model of planned vs. emergent groups |
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Definition
planned groups:
-deliberately formed by members themselves or by an outside entity. two types:
o Concocted:
• Planned by individuals outside of the group [production lines, task forces, crews, professional sports teams]
o Founded
• Planned by individuals who remain within the group study groups, small businesses, clubs, associations]
-emergent: groups that form spontaneously [more or less] as a function of common interests/goals
o May also form as individuals find themselves repeatedly interacting with same subset of individuals over time/settings. Two groups:
• Circumstantial: emergent, unplanned groups arising when external situational forces set the stage to join together often only temporarily, in a unified group [crowd, mobs, etc.]
• Self-organizing: emerge when interacting individuals gradually align their activities in a cooperative system of interdependence [occupy wall street]
Circumstantial groups may turn into self-organizing groups as members recognize that they do in fact share things in common |
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Term
| Gustav LeBon's view on crowds |
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Definition
people go crazy/nutty when they get into groups
o “by the mere fact that he forms part of an organized crowd, a man descents several rungs in the ladder of civilization”
o something happens in your psyche when you join a group, messes with your head a little
*this is an older perspective examining the phenomenological experience of being in a group per se |
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Term
| newer view of groups and antisocial behavior |
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Definition
• decreased self regulation: critical issue, most direct predictor of anti social behavior
• distal predictors → proximal → antisocial behavior
• such decrease can be driven by lots of things including but not limited to being in a group
• deindividuation also plays a key role: groups play a role but not the only role
• deindiviuation plays a central role: loss of self
o loss of identity temporarily [not literally] in the group
o groups can play a role
• other things equal, people in large groups
o nightfall, ability to disguise face, other factors promoting anonymity
o decreased self regulation; lessened concern with how others evaluate the self[ [stimulus overload, increased physiological arousal]
o all leads to antisocial behavior
example: Watson found that warriors when they disguised their face fucked more shit up, suicide baiting is more common in large crowds and at night, internet postings are more risque when anonymous, everyone goes kray on halloween |
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Term
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Definition
| we think people are paying more attention to you than they actually are |
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Term
| social facilitation theory |
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Definition
do people perform better alone or in groups?
Triplett observed cyclists rode after in a pack than when alone
Zajonc's drive theory [see next slide] |
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Term
|
Definition
-mere presence of others increases arousal
-arousal tends to elicit "dominant responses" [well learned, automatic associations], makes them more rigid that they are even more inclined to do what htey are already inclined to do
increased dominant response tendencies lead to
o improved performance on well-learned and/or simple tasks (for which the dominant response is correct)
o impaired performance on novel and/or complex tasks (for which the dominant response is incorrect)
example: novice musicians --> bad performance in public
highly skilled musicians however are better in public
Zajonc had participants pronounce words, creating dominant response [response you are most likely to make], had to guess word when flashed o a screen: peoples guesses usually contained dominant word when being watched
believed theory applied past humans:
coachroackes --> placed in runway either alone or w/ audience, show bright light and cockroaches run away, performed worse when maze was complex and had spectators but when maze is easy they had spectators they did better [dominant response get sbetter] |
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Term
| why did they have their dominance response in pubic? |
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Definition
• Presence of others (of same species) arousing for at least 3 reasons:
o Mere presence
o Evaluation apprehension
o Distraction
• Arousal then directly leads to enhanced likelihood of well-learned response |
|
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Term
| cognitive load explanation for dominance response in public |
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Definition
• More parsimonious
• Public settings distracting for several reasons
• Erodes capacity to engage in controlled (complex) processes, and hence:
o Habitual/automatic responses more likely
• Similar to findings in “cognitive heuristics” literature |
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Term
| group polarization effects |
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Definition
o Groups push or polarize members in whatever direction they tended to be leaning in the first place
o 2 effects
• Become more heterogeneous and more away from the middle, toward both ends
why?
1) social comparison hypothesis: people try to outdo eacch other and advocate their position as more favorable
2) persuasive arguments hypothesis: persuasive arguments advocate risky decisions and risk is valued in our culture, so when risky situations come up they can think of better arguments in favor of risk
note: they're good in intellective/problem solving [school gorupwork]
judgmental tasks: not as great b/c no clear correct call/answer of judgment |
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Term
| characteristics of groups promoting good decisions |
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Definition
• Sources of process gains
o More info to be shared
o Diversity of thought strategies/tools
o Error checking of facts and reasoning
o Incorporation of different values
o Canceling out of random errors |
|
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Term
| characteristics of groups promoting poor decisions |
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Definition
• Sources of potential losses
o Poor and/or biased info sharing
o Overconfidence
o Herding or cascades of opinions
o Social loafing, conformity
o = GROUPTHINK |
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Term
| elements that tend to breed groupthink |
|
Definition
• Group is already cohesive
• Isolated
• Directive leader
• Stress
• Poor decision making rules |
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Term
|
Definition
• Illusion of invulnerability
• Collective rationalization
• Belief in inherent morality
• Stereotyped views of out groups
• Direct pressure on dissenters
• Self censorship
• Illusion of unanimity
• Self appointed mindguards |
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Term
| outcomes/consequences of groupthink |
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Definition
• Incomplete survey of alternatives
• Failure to examine risk of preferred choices
• Poor information search
• Selective bias in processing info at hand
• Failure to work out contingency plans |
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Term
|
Definition
| concern about how we appear in other's eyes about being evaluated |
|
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Term
| distraction-conflict theory |
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Definition
| being aware of someone else's presence creates a conflict b/w attending to that person and attending to the task at hand and that is the attentional conflict that is arousing/produces social facilitation effects |
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Term
| Zimbardos deindividuation model |
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Definition
diminished self observation/evaluation in groups, more likely to engage in impulsive behavior b/c there are less constraints and they feel that they can so they are irrational, emotional, erratic
people find impulsivity to be liberating |
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Term
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Definition
| enhanced sense of individual identity produced by focusing attention on the self, generally leading to people acting carefully and deliberately and in accordance with their sense of propriety and values |
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Term
|
Definition
| maintains that when people focus their attention inward on themselves, they become concerned with self evaluation and how current behavior conforms to internal standards/values |
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Term
|
Definition
faulty thinking on part of cohesive groups when they don't scrutinize an issue at hand as a result of social pressures to reach consensus
reject alternative viewpoints
discourage others from coming forward w/ other ideas and assessments
end up believing in wisdom/moral correctness of proposed solutions |
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Term
|
Definition
| tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than individuals would |
|
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Term
| nomothetic ranking approach |
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Definition
assumes it is possible to rank life events in terms of how stressful they are to people as a whole
[Holmes and Rahe]
problems:
o weak/unstable correlation between stress and markers of physical/mental health
o any given stressful event affects individuals differently
o does not make a formal distinction between positive and negative events as stressors
o places emphasis on major life events, which are rare
• subsequent research suggests small but annoying daily hassles can contribute to stress, especially when occurring frequently → build up effect
o third variable problem
• p[negative event] occurring, personality traits, health problems |
|
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Term
| Type A vs. Type B approach |
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Definition
• Type A
o Highly competitive, strong personality, restless when inactive, thrives on deadlines, notorious multi-taskers
• Type B
o Low in competitiveness, easy going, does not anger easily, easy going
o Enjoys leisure time
• According to original theory, type A should have greater risk for coronary heart disease
o This is true!
o Many problems however
• Theory predicted whole constellation of type A traits predicted heart disease
Only one component of it in actuality was predictive: hostility
Not clear whether type A/B is fixed or modifiable
Could we say type B’s are always healthier than type A? |
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Term
| quas-behavioral approaches to managing stress |
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Definition
main emphasis: changing one's own behavior patterns can in itself reduce stress
general idea of recognizing what causes you stress/changing as a result |
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Term
| cognitive approaches to managing stress |
|
Definition
greater emphasis on changing your subjective construal of events/others
could have implications for behavior, but primary focus is world around you
reframing: change your cognitions aka reframe the situation
• challenge vs. threat: framing a task as a challenge as oppose to a threat can not only increase likelihood fo success but can also reduced degree to which the task triggers physiological stress
perceived control: associated w/ higher levels of positive affect, better health outcome |
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Term
|
Definition
can improve ability to cope w/ stress and benefits health
mortality rates lower for those w/ meaningful connections |
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Term
|
Definition
repetitive thought/mental obsession
can exacerbate/prolong distress
-tends to activate negative affect [depressed mood/activity]
-interferes with affective problem solving by making thinker more pessimistic/fatalistic
-can lead to loss of social support, fueling depression |
|
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Term
| techniques that can ameliorate rumination |
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Definition
"thought stopping": break cycle of ruminative thought or shorten duration
address head on the core issues making you anxious
social support/journaling
imagine worst case scenario b/c it prob won't happen! |
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Term
|
Definition
Mortality rate is lower (about 1/2 as likely to die)
Half as likely to be disabled
Live longer on average
Better health habits
Lower blood pressure
More robust immune system
More productive on the job
Higher incomes
Able to tolerate more pain |
|
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Term
| factors that increase happiness |
|
Definition
exercise and SOAP
Social connections
Optimism [resilience]
Appreciation [gratitude/savoring]
Purpose [greater than oneself] |
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Term
|
Definition
concerned w/ actual decision making process influences the decisions that are made in practice, combines psych/econ
bounded rationality: people have limited time/capacity to weigh relevant costs and benefits of a decision |
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Term
|
Definition
being too impatient when it comes to decisions that involve benefits that are received in future or discounting future benefits inconsistently depending on when delay in receipt of benefit occurs
people are too impatient in short run, causing irrational/inconsistent choices
people want immediate consumption |
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Term
|
Definition
people often allow way decision is presented/framed to impact choice that is selected even though actual benefits vs. costs are unaffected
people are risk averse in decision making
people let sunk costs which have already been paid and don't impact marginal costs to impact a decision
losses loom larger than equivalent gain [cash discount vs. credit card surcharge]
Kahneman's study about holding on to the mug: owners sell for more than buyers want to buy |
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Term
|
Definition
| divergence b/w willingness to buy and sell |
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Term
|
Definition
stress hormone, released into blood stream by ACTH
increases heart rate, blood pressure, fight or flight behavior, hands sweat, etc. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| ability to focus on one's feelings from perspective of a detached observer |
|
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Term
| tend and befriend approach to stress |
|
Definition
when we tend to others needs, physiological processes are engaged that calm down our stress related HPA axis activation, paving the way for better health
Oxytocin: fosters feelings of trust, love, devotion -- attachment system |
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Term
|
Definition
| reluctance to pursue an uncertain option with an average payoff that equals/exceeds payoff attainable by another, certain option |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| opposite of risk aversion: tendency to forgo a certain outcome in favor of a risky option with an equal/more negative average payoff |
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Term
|
Definition
reluctance to waste money that leads people to continue w/ an endeavor, whether it serves future interest or not, b/c they already ahve invested money, effort, or time in it
rationally, past costs should not factor into a decision since they are already paid |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| tendency to treat money differently depending on how it was acquired and to what mental category it is attached |
|
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Term
| incrementalist theory of intelligence |
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Definition
belief that intelligence is something you get by dint of working
believe they can increase ability and attribute failure to lack of effort or a hard task
tend to choose tasks that will help increase ability |
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Term
| entity theory of intelligence |
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Definition
belief that intelligence is something you are born with and cannot change
blame intellectual ability when they fail |
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Term
| Pygmalion in the class - Rosenthal and Jacobson |
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Definition
if teacher believed children would gain in intelligence, teacher behaved in such a way to the child
teacher expectation effects are rarely very strong, occur only if expectaitons are manipualted early in school year
greater for first and second greaters than otehr children |
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Term
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Definition
| media presentations meant to both entertain and persuade people to act in own/societys best interests |
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