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| effect that the words, actions, or mere prescence of people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior. |
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| Tendency for people to exaggerated how much they could of predicted an outcome after knowing that it occured |
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| Technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurments or impressions of their behavior |
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| Technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them ( i.e. how much one can be predicted from the other) is assessed |
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Statistical technique that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another
Ex. how well you can predict people's weight from their height |
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| Random Selection to a Conditon |
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| A way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample |
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| Random Assignment to Condition |
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| Process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condtion of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants personalities or backgrounds are distributed evenly across conditons |
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| researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable |
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| varible that changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable |
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Variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent varible.
Researcher hypothesizes that the dependent variablewill depend on the level of the independent variable. |
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Probability Level
(p-value) |
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Definition
- how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable or variables
- less than 5 in 100 might be chance factors, not the IV studied
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How people think about themselves and the social world.
How people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgements and decisions |
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| mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about and remeber. |
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Type of Schema:
impression |
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Type of Schema:
Self-concept |
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Type of schema:
stereotype |
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| The tendency to go along with the group order to fufill group's expectations and can acceptance |
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| People’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others. |
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| a mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind. |
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| Mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imaging what might have been. |
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| Representativeness Heuristics |
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Definition
| A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case. |
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| Fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| The tendency to overestimate the extent to which people’s behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors. |
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| Self-serving attributions |
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| Explanations for one’s successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one’s failures that blame external, situational factors. |
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| The Overjustification effect |
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Definition
· the tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons. |
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| Two-factor Theory of Emotion |
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Definition
| the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it. |
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| Misattribution of arousal |
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Definition
| The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do. |
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| Colley/Mead symbolic-interactionism |
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Definition
| We are what others think we are. Especially close others, can lead to distortions, 6th grade study. |
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| how we think others see us. |
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| comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability. Lowered self-esteem. |
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| comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability. Higher self-esteem. |
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| : People’s evaluations of their own self-worth—that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent. |
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| James’s definition of self-esteem |
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Definition
| self-esteem= Success/competence |
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| Self-serving attributions |
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Definition
| Explanations for one’s successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one’s failures that blame external, situational factors. |
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| The strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves. |
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| Sociometer theory (Leary) |
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Definition
Evolutionary argument- Social inclusion necessary for survival, adapted methods to detect exclusion.
Self-esteem is a sociometer-
Upward changes=social acceptance,
downward changes=social exclusion. |
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| Terror management theory (Greenburg) |
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Definition
evolutionary argument- All life strives for self-preservation, Humans develop awareness of morality, Adapted methods for managing extensional terror. Self-Esteem is an anxiety buster.
Two essential things for high self-esteem
A worldview and Belief in self as meeting standards. |
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Term
Tesser’s self-evaluations maintenance model (SEM)
3 Elements in Comparison |
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Definition
· 1) Relative performance in the domain
· 2) Closeness to the comparison other
· 3) Relevance of the domain |
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Term
| Tesser’s self-evaluations maintenance model (SEM) |
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Definition
· Hypotheses: Highest threat = perform worse than a close other in a relevant domain.
- To maintain self-esteem: elements will be adjusted to reduce threat
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Definition
| behavioral study at Stanford in basement with students |
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| Football Study (Hastorf & Cantrill, 1954) |
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Definition
| perception of reality/subject construal is critical to predicting response- Dartmouth and Princeton football game perception study |
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| Lottery Study (Langer, 1975) |
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Definition
| given choice between choosing tickets and being given tickets; chosen tickets are more expensive but people would rather chose their own fate, believe they have a better chance of winning if they chose their own ticket |
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| Self-Verification Study (Geisler, Josephs, & Swann, 1996) |
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Definition
| people chose to hear either positive or negative feedback on themselves; people who were depressed more likely to choose negative |
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| Circadian rhythm study (Bodenhausen, 1990) |
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Definition
| brain takes shortcuts (cognitive conservatism) if needed. Study dealt with morning vs. night people and use of stereotypes for explanation based on time of day. |
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| Couse Registration Study (Zandy & Gerard, 1974) |
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Definition
| influence of what information is attended to and recalled (students remembered more from classes that were of their major) |
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| Eyewitness Testimony Study (Loftus) |
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Definition
| remembering what didn’t happen: disadvantages of using schemas |
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| Interview Study (Snyder & Swann, 1978) |
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Definition
| college students were asked to interview other students. First they were provided with information about the other student. Some were told the other student was extroverted (outgoing and sociable) while some were told the other student was introverted (shy or turned inward). The results of the interview tended to confirm these expectations, although in reality the descriptions were matched randomly to the students being interviewed. The interviewers simply found what they expected to find. |
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| Pygmalian Effect (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968) |
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Definition
| self-fulfilling prophecy: disadvantage of using schema |
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| Bargh’s Priming Studies (Rudeness & Elderly) |
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Definition
| Priming behaviors of elderly and rudeness concept |
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| White Bear Study (Wegner) |
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Definition
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| Effect of Suppression of Mood (Borton et al., 2005) |
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Definition
compared the subjective and physiological effects of emotional suppression and acceptance in a sample of individuals with anxiety and mood disorders.
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| 1992 Olympic Swimmers Study (Madvec et al., 1994) |
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| second place medalists more unhappy than bronze |
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| Food Drive Study (Newton, Griffin, Ross, 1980) |
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Definition
| when people given a reminder and map, more likely to make it to the food drive, based off personality and situation effects |
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| Game Show Study (Ross et al., 1977) |
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Definition
| Attributional Heuristics; questioner made up hard question, contestant tried to answer, observer was the audience: people rated the intelligence of the observer and contestant lower expect for the questioner who rated about the same |
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| Perspective Study (Storm) |
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Definition
| – Actor-observer biases (different views of the argument) to rate whether it was caused by a dispositional or situational attribution |
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| Anxious Women Study (Gilbert, 1989) |
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Definition
| Women who were already busy attributed their anxiety to that rather than the stressful topic that was relayed |
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Definition
| remembering what didn’t happen: disadvantages of using schemas |
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| Olympic Medalist Study (Markus et al.) |
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Definition
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| Facial Expression Study (Laird) |
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Definition
pencil in mouth- more likely to be happy |
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| Head Nod Study (Wells &Petty) |
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Definition
Listened to a political discussion; more likely to agree if head is nodding up and down during |
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| Paid Meeting Study (Bogart, Loeb, & Rutman) |
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Definition
| less likely to attend meetings for post meeting is pay is higher |
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| Suproxin Study (Schacter & Singer) |
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Definition
| Ps receive epinephrine, IV: Manipulate knowledge of symptoms, Put in situation with very happy person, DV: Make ratings of own happiness; happier if misinformed of symptoms |
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| Swinging Bridge Study (Aron & Dutton) |
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Definition
| more likely to call female guide if approached by her on the bridge because heart rate is already up due to being high. |
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| 6th grade study (Hergovich et al.) |
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Definition
Reflected Appraisals (we are what others think we are) |
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| Mr. Clean & Mr. Dirty Study (Morse & Gergen) |
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Definition
| social comparison; interviewed with a clean vs. a dirty person also interview; Px more confident if the other interviewer was dirty looking |
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Definition
| Touching of the dot on forehead in mirror indicated perception of self; more likely to do so if raised in a group |
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| The Password Study (Tesser & Smith) |
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Definition
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gave friends harder clues to guess word than strangers because they did poorly. Self-Evaluation Maintenance |
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Definition
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| Inclusion of Other in Self (Aron et al.) |
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Definition
| If very close to another person we will include their traits in our own perception of self |
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| Surgency Study (Schmader & Major) |
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Definition
| we infer that we have the same traits as our group |
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| Implicit vs. Explicit Self-Esteem (Jordan et al.) |
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Definition
| High explicit + Low implicit= More narcissistic, Show stronger bias for own group, Show more ethnic discrimination |
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| Cyberball Study (Zadro et al.) |
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Definition
| Inclusion of group vs exclusion: more lack of belongingness when excluded from game |
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| Fortune Telling Study (Twenge et al.) |
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Definition
| Manipulated exclusion feeling by telling Px three different types of Conditional future which lead to self-defeating behaviors |
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| Faces of Death Study (Greenberg et al.) |
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Definition
| Will a self-esteem boost make people feel less anxious about death? IV 1: Manipulate self-esteem- Positive or Neutral feedback, IV 2: Make death salient- ‘Faces of Death’ or Neutral; DV: self-reported anxiety; lower anxiety with self-esteem boost |
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| Threat of Shock Study (Greenberg et al.) |
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Definition
| Same effects found on physiological measures of anxiety, Cognitive measure of death through activation; lower skin condensation with self-esteem boost |
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| Anti-American Essay Study (Harmon-Jones et al.) |
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Definition
| Worldview defense, Preference for own beliefs over others. Should be stronger after death prime, Will self-esteem boost eliminate need for defense? Yes it eliminated some need of defense. |
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