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Definition
| The tendency to overestimate the intensity & duration of one's emotional reactions to future negative events. |
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Definition
In the context of dissonance theory, a way of reducing dissonance by reminding oneself of one or more of one's positive attributes.
(through adding a new cognition) |
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| The feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that is discrepant from one's self-concept. |
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| The process of reducing dissonance is |
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| people with high-self Esteem will |
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Definition
| Experience more dissonance if engaging in foolish behavior than a person with low-self esteem |
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| In a research people given a boost to their self-esteem were |
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Definition
| less likely to cheat if given the opportunity to do so, than individuals who had a lower opinion of themselves |
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Term
In a reserach, given a personality test, and revealed negative feedback to the subjects
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Definition
| The subjects were more likely to cheat playing cards, if given the opportunity to do so. |
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Term
| Human behavior stems from our need to |
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Definition
preserve a stable, positive self-image.
People strive to keep their self-concepts consonant with their actions. |
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| Bolstering self-esteem includes that people have to |
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Definition
| focus on his or her actual stregths, positive values, and good qualities & then strive them to make them consonant with his or her actions. |
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Term
| irrevocability hypothesis |
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Definition
| Irrevocability of a decision always increases dissonance and the motivation to reduce it. |
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Definition
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| Dissonance aroused after making a decision typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative & devaluating the rejected alternatives |
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Definition
| creating the illusion of irrevocability. Unscrupulos strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, & then raises the price; frequenty, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price. |
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| lowballing works because: |
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Definition
1) Commitment of sorts exist.
2) The feeling of commitment triggered the anticipation of an exciting event.
3) Price slightly higher at another delarship. |
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Definition
| Dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative & devaluating the rejected alternatives. |
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| The first to investigate the precise workings on cognitive dissonance. |
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Term
Regardless a person decides to cheat or not:
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Definition
| the threat to your self-esteem arouses dissonance. |
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Term
| The decision to behave inmorally is not merely a rationalization of your own behavior but: |
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Definition
| a change in your system of values. |
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Definition
| performed the experiment on how dissonance affects personal values on elementary school children (attitudes towards cheating). |
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| When a decision is made, people justify it to reduce dissonance (preserve self-esteem), though that justification might: |
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Definition
| later make it hard for you to change your mind.. even when you should. |
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| THe study on primates suggests: |
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Definition
| it has been of evolutionary benefit to stick with a decision once made (reducing the preference of the variable not chosen). |
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Term
If many thoughts are consonant with having told a lie:
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Definition
| you would not experience much dissonance |
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Term
| Using fMRI technology, while people experience various kinds of dissonance: |
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Definition
| Striatum & other highly specific areas of the brain within the prefontal cortex were active. |
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Term
| Prefontal cortex is in charge of |
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Definition
| planning & decision making. |
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Term
| Drew westen found that when people confronted with dissonant information: |
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Definition
| the reasonin areas of the brain virtually shut down. |
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Term
| the emotion circuits of the brain light up happily when |
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Definition
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Term
| Westen calls the neurological dissonant: |
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Definition
| "cognitive kaleidoscope". until the pieces fall into the pattern they want to see. |
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| A person experiences the least dissonance if there is enough: |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The tendencey for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain |
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Term
| dissonance-reducing behavior might be less prevalent in "colectivist" cultures because |
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Definition
| the needs of the group matter more then the needs of the individual. |
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Term
| "collectivists cultures" experience dissonance more likely when: |
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Definition
| their behavior shames or dissapoints "others". |
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Term
| If a person agrees to go through a demanding or an unpleasant experience in order to attain a goal or object: |
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Definition
| tha goal or object becomes more attractive. |
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Term
| A person experiences dissonance the most if there is not enough external justification for one's behavior. Instead, the person will try to find enough: |
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Definition
| internal justification, by reducing dissonance and changing something about one's self, such as ones's attitude or behavior. |
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Term
| Counterattitudinal Advocacy |
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Definition
| "saying becomes believing".. when we claim to have an opinion or attitude that differs from our tru beliefs. There is not enough external justification so one's convinced one's self that the attitude we've changed is moved to whatever we said. |
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Term
| The smaller the incentive |
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Definition
| the greater the attitude change |
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Definition
| The dissonance aroused when individuals lack suffient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbbiden activity or object. |
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Definition
| A long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification. |
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Definition
| The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statmetns that run counter to their behaviors and then remainding them of the inconsisitency between what they advocated and their bahavior. The purpose is to lead individuals to mmore responsible behavior. |
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Definition
Justifying Acts of Kindness
If we have done someone a favor, we're likely to feel more posetively toward that person than if we don't do the favor because of an imperonal request. |
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Definition
| Evaluations of people, objects & ideas. |
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Term
| Cognitively Based Attitude |
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Definition
| An attitude based primarly on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object. |
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Term
| Affectlively Based Attitude |
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Definition
| An attitude based more on people's feelings & values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object. |
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| Affectively based attitudes can result from: |
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Definition
| sensory reaction, aesthetic reaction, or conditioning. |
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Definition
| The phenomenon whereby stimulus that elicits an emotional response, which is paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus. |
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Definition
| The phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they followed by a reward (positive reinforcement) or punishment. |
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Term
| Affectively based attitudes: |
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Definition
1) do not result from a rational examination of the issues
2) are not governed by logic
3) are often linked to people's values, so that trying to change them challenges those values. |
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Term
| Behaviorally Based Attitude |
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Definition
| An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object |
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Definition
| Attitudes that e consciously endorse and can easily report |
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Term
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Definition
| Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious |
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Term
| People can have both implicit & explicite attitudes toward the samething: |
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Definition
| Implicit attitudes are rooted more in people's childhood experiences, whereas explicit attitudes are tooted more in their recent experiences. |
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Term
| When attitudes change, they often do so: |
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Definition
| In response to social influence |
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Term
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Definition
| Communication (a speech, ot television) advocating a particular sie of an issue. |
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Term
| The Yale Attitude Change Approach |
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Definition
| The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, the nature of the audience. |
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Term
| Elaboration Likelihood Model |
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Definition
| Amodel explaining two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude chage |
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Definition
| when people are motivated & have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication |
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Term
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Definition
| when people do not pay attention to the arguments but instead swayed by the surface characteristics (e.g who gave the speech) |
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Term
| Central Route to Persuation |
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Definition
| The case in which people elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, which occurs when people have both the ability & the motivation to listen carefully to a communication |
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Term
| Peripheral Route to Persuation |
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Definition
| the case in which people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues |
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| The motivation to pay attention to the arguments |
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Definition
| is the personal relevance to the topic |
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Term
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Definition
| a personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage effortful cognitive activities |
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Term
| Fear arousing communication |
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Definition
| persuasive message that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears |
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Term
| Heuristics-Systematic Model of Persuation |
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Definition
| An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change; either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts (heuristics), such as "Experts are always right". |
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Definition
| can act as heuristics to determine our attitudes |
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Term
| The problem with "how do I feel about it" heuristic is that: |
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Definition
| We can make mistakes about what is causeing our mood, misattributing feelings created by a sorce (x) to another (z) |
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Term
| Fight fire with fire means: |
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Definition
| If an attitude is cognitively based, try to change it with rational arguments; if its is affectively based, try to change it with emotional appeals. |
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Term
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Definition
| beliefs that most members of a society accept uncritically |
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Term
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Definition
| Making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position. |
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| before letting kids watch TV or sending them off to the movies |
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| it is good to remind them that they are likely to encounter several attempts to change their attitudes. |
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| advertising while the show is broadcasting to get people into buying their products |
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Definition
| The idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior. |
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Term
| peoples attitudes can be poor predictors of their behavior. Likewise, |
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Definition
| attitudes do predict behavior under specific conditions, such as whether the behavior we are trying to predict is spontaneous or planned. |
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Term
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Definition
| the strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel abourt the object |
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Term
| accessibility is high or low will depend on: |
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Definition
| the more-direct experience people have with an attitude object, the more likely their spontaneus behaviors will be consistent with their attitudes |
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Term
| Theory of Planned Behavior |
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Definition
| The idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determine by their attitudes toward 1) specific behaviors, their 2) subjective norms, and their perceived 3) behavioral control. |
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Definition
| Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may neverthless inlfuence people's judgements, atitudes, & behaviors |
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Definition
| A change in ones's behavior due to the real or imagined influenced of other people. |
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Term
| Informational Social Influencial |
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Definition
| The influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropiate course of action. |
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Definition
| Conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right. |
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Definition
| Conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying. |
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Definition
| The rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd |
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Term
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Definition
| The occurence in a group of people of similar physical symptoms with no physical cause |
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Term
| When will people conform to informational social influence |
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Definition
When the Situation is Ambiguous
When the Situation is a Crisis
When other People are Experts |
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Term
| Normative Social Influence |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members. |
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Term
| Normative Social Influence |
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Definition
| The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the groups belief's & behaviors but nor necessarly in private acceptance of those beliefs & behaviors. |
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Term
| The Asch Line-Judgement Studies shows: |
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Definition
| Conformity and social approval |
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Term
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Definition
| People's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others |
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Term
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Definition
| People's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whteher the behavior is aproved or disapproved of by others |
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Term
| An injuctive norm relates to what people in culture approve or disapprove of; (litering) |
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Definition
| A DESCRIPTIVE norm relates to what most people in a culture ACTUALLY do (litering at a beaseball game) |
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Term
| Invoking conformity to social norms can be used in the effort to address societal problems such as |
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Definition
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| Descriptive Type of norm made silent in the situation |
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Definition
| (confedarate litters bag) |
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| Injuctive type of norm made silent in the situation |
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Definition
| (confedarte picks up bag) |
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Term
Social Impact Theory specifies when normative social influence is most likely to occur by: |
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Definition
| referring to the strength, immediacy & size of the group. More likely to conform when athe group is one we care about, when the group memebers are unanimous in their thoughts & behaviors , when the groups has three or more members, & when we are members of collectivist cutures. |
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| Past conformity gives people: |
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Definition
| Idiosyncrasy credits, allowing them to deviate from the group without serious consequences. |
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Definition
| A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group |
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Term
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Definition
| A generalization about a group of people, in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members |
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Definition
| The tendency to see relationships, or correlations, between events that are actually unrelated. |
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Definition
| Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group solely because of his or her membership in that group. |
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Definition
| Outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudice attitudes |
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Term
| A two-Step Model of the Cognitive Processing of the Stereotypes |
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Definition
Automatic Processing occurs wo your awarness.
Controlled Processing occurs with you awarness. |
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Definition
| The case wherein people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which causes that person to behave consistently with people's oroginal expectations, making the expectations come true. |
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Term
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Definition
| The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype |
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Term
| Institutional Discrimination |
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Definition
| Practices that discriminate, legally or illegally, against a minority group by virtue of its ethnicity, gender, culture, age, sexual orientation, or other target of societal or company prejudice |
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Term
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Definition
| racist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and dicrimination are the norm |
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Term
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Definition
| Sexist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group's expectations and gain acceptance |
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Term
| In groups superiority and the whole purpose of it is for: |
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Definition
| Individuals to enhance their self-esteem by identifying with specific social groups. |
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Term
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Definition
| The perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other (homogeneous) than thay really are, as wekk as more similar than members of the ingroup are. |
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Term
| Dispositional vs. Situational Explanations |
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Definition
| Stereotypes are so insidious & persistent is the human tendency to make dispositional attribution: to leap to the conclusion that a person's behavior is due to some aspect of his or her personality rather than to some aspect of the situation. This is the familiar FAE. |
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Term
| Relying too heavily on dispositional attributions |
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Definition
| often leads us to make attributional mistakes |
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Term
| Ultimate Attribution Error |
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Definition
| The tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to blame individuals (make dispositional attributions) for their victimization, typically motivated by a desire to see the world as a fair place |
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Term
| Realistic Conflict Theory |
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Definition
| The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for individuals, when frustrated or unhappy, to displace aggresion onto groups that are dislike, visible, and relatively powerless. |
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Term
| The Contact Hypothesis (Gordon Allport) to reduce prejudice |
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Definition
| Both gropus are equal; both share a common goal tha generates awarness of their shared interests and common humanity. and their contact is supported by law or local custom (social norms) |
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Term
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Definition
| THe situation that exists when two or more groups need to depend on one another to accomplish a goal that is important to each of them. |
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| Contact reduces prejudice: six conditions |
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Definition
mutual interdependence
having a common goal
equal status
friendly, informal setting
learns that the ouy-group members he comes to know are typical of their group, having multiple members of the out-group members present
social norms that promote and support equality among groups
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Term
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Definition
| A classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small, desegregated groups and making each child dependent on the other children on the group to learn the course material and do well the class. |
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Term
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Definition
| improves race relations, bulding empathy, and improves instruction in schools. |
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Term
| measuring implicit prejudices through |
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Definition
| bogus pipeline and more recentely IAT (implicit association test) |
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