5.62 – Praxiteles, Aphrodite of knidos.

Roman marble copy of an original of ca 350-340.

• The first nude statue of a goddess caused a sensation in the fourth century bc.
• But Praxiteles was also famous for his ability to transform marble into soft and radiant flesh. His Aphrodite had ‘dewy eyes’.
• Nudity of the goddess signifies her divine birth from the sea and her role at Cnidus as Aphrodite Euploia.
• The placement of the hand; in that gesture had not appeared in Greek art before,
• The divine authority of the goddess is both hidden and revealed, the hand that decorously covers her modesty also drawing the viewer's attention to it, to the mystery of her power over those who worship her.
• The gesture is not indicative of her shame but her fertility.
• Also shows her eternal youth through ritual cleansing and renewal

5.65 – Lysippos, apoxyomenos,

Roman marble copy of a bronze original ca. 330 BC.

The Apoxyomenos motivated a departure from the style of Polykleitos, men as they were, and formed a transition to the active, psychological aspects of the sculpture of the Hellenistic Period.  The Apoxyomenos depicts an athlete who has just finished exercising and has cleaned himself off with olive oil. He is scraping the excess oil from his outstretched arm with a curved metal scraper (strigil). Lysippos makes the legs slender and longer, the head also smaller, whose ratio is not one seventh of Polykleitos but one eighth. All these result in a more delicate, taller figure. The Apoxyomenos stands in a similar stance to the Doryphoros, with the weight resting naturalistically on one leg. But instead of the sectioned and closed forms of the Doryphoros’ body, Lysippos unifies the body of the Apoxyomenos by allowing the sections of the body to flow into one another. An absence of hard lines and overemphasized musculature yields a more naturalistic image. Increased naturalism is further achieved through the portrait-like face and the tousled hair. Although this depicts the traditional subject of the nude athlete, Lysippos introduces two innovations. First, he establishes a new rule of proportions that differs from the Polykleitan canon: the body of the athlete is slender with longer limbs, the torso is shorter, and the head is only a tenth of the height of the body (heads were an eighth of the height of the body in the Polykleitan system). Second, this sculpture is truly three-dimensional. For example, the hands are positioned in such a way; the right arm extends directly out toward the viewer and protrudes daringly into the viewing plane. The audience cannot fully appreciate the work from the front, but must circle the piece, viewing it from several angles. This creates a physical interaction between viewer and image, which influenced the psychological aspects of Hellenistic sculpture. He also broke down the dominance of his frontal view and encouraged viewing his statues from multiple angles.

5.81 – Epigonos, dying Gaul

Roman marble copy of a bronze original ca 230-220.

By Attalus I of Pergamon to celebrate his victory over the Celtic Galatians in Anatolia. The present base was added after its rediscovery. The identity of the sculptor of the original is unknown, but it has been suggested that Epigonus, the court sculptor of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon, may have been its sculptor. The statue depicts a dying Celt with remarkable realism, particularly in the face, and may have been painted.He is represented as a Gallic warrior with a typically Gallic hairstyle and moustache. The figure is naked save for a neck torc, a characteristic element of the Gauls. He lies on his fallen shield while his sword and other objects lie beside him. The statue serves both as a reminder of the Celts' defeat, thus demonstrating the might of the people who defeated them, and a memorial to their bravery as worthy adversaries. The statue may also provide evidence to corroborate ancient accounts of the Gallic fighting style – Diodorus Siculus reported that "Some Gauls use iron breast-plates in battle, while others fight naked, trusting only in the protection which nature gives."

5.82 – Nike of Samothrace,

nike alighting on a warship, Greece, ca 190 BC.

Marble.

It was erected by the Macedonian general Demetrius I Poliorcetes after his naval victory at Cyprus between 295 and 289 BC It was created to not only honor the goddess, Nike, but to honor a sea battle. It conveys a sense of action and triumph as well as portraying artful flowing drapery through its features which the Greeks considered ideal beauty. Victory has just landed on a prow to crown a victor at sea. Her wings still beat, and the wind seeps her drapery. The placement of the statue, in a fountain of the splashing water, heighten the dramatic visual effect. The work is notable for its convincing rendering of a pose where violent motion and sudden stillness meet, for its graceful balance and for the rendering of the figure's draped garments, depicted as if rippling in a strong sea breeze, which is considered especially compelling. Nike of Samothrace is seen as an iconic depiction of triumphant spirit and of the divine momentarily coming face to face with man

5.85 – seated boxer, Rome, ca 100-50 BC.

Even when Hellenistic artists treated tradition themes, they approached them in novel ways. This bronze statue represents an older, defeated boxer with a broken nose and battered ears. This one is unusual because he is sitting down and looks drained; he has a broken nose, Gashes on his forehead. In ancient boxing the only rule was no biting, various textures; hair, gloves, and skin, turning of the neck is very life like. The creator has chosen to represent the athlete, the moment the judges are ready to announce the winner.
The "Boxer" who is probably unable to hear due to his injuries, looks at them and the crowd to verify the result. The wounds in his face have been added besides with pure pieces of bronze.

9.3 – model of a typical 6^th century BC Etruscan temple

as described Vitruvius.

Rome.

Etruscan temples resembled Greek temples but had widely spaced unfluted wooden columns only at the front, walls of sundried mud brick, and narrow staircase at the center of the facade. Made of mud brick and tufa. The only evidence of the temple is the foundation. Adopt a lot of Greek deities. They don’t need too many columns because the structure is so light weight. Only had columns on the front. One main entrance. No sculpture in the center like the Parthenon. No freezes along the walls. The edge is much further out and the roof is made of wood. Minerva, Jupiter, and Apollo were the most worshipped gods. Used clay in the statues as opposed to the Greeks who used marble. The statues on the roof are hollow and dresses. 3 cellas for the cult images to stand in. Lots of gestures and movements. Archaic smiles. Would have been painted with attachments

9.4 – Apulu, from the roof of the Portonccio temple,

Veii, Italy. Ca. 510-500 BC.

Painted terracotta. It was part of a statuary group depicting a Greek myth. Distinctly Etruscan, however, are the God’s vigorous motion and gesticulating arms and the placement of the statue on a temple roof. Etruscan Statues show some of the best examples of the energy and excitement that characterize Etruscan art. Bright paint, swelling contours, animated faces, and gesticulations distinguish the statues. The rippling folds of his garment and the way the statue leans shows its forward movement. In comparison the Greek statue of Apollo made in 460 B. C. is much more calm looking, as if he is going to be in motion rather than in the process of movement.

9.8 – Interior of the tombs of Reliefs,

Cerveteri, Italy, 3rd century BC.

The tomb of the Reliefs takes its name from the painted stucco reliefs covering its walls and piers. The stools, mirrors, drinking cups, and other items are reminders of the houses of the living. A long row of steps leads to the tomb of the Reliefs amazing with a plenty of painted stucco shields, helmets, swords, sacrificial cups. There are also pictures of mythological creatures; the serpent-legged divinity and the triple-headed dog. Capitals of the pilasters and carved legs of the beds are decorated too. Two pillows one on another are carved of stone in the head of the bed; their surfaces are modeled so skillfully that seem to be soft. The infilling of architectural platitudes by reliefs is also peculiar for other tombs of 4th century B.C.

Woman were allowed in the symposiums unlike the Greeks who didn’t allow them. They had cremations and not mummifications. Specific location for the dead; next to the city of the living. The tombs had the same things the Egyptians provide for their kings. Played the same games at the symposiums as the Greeks. Most of them are dressed in the freezes of those events. They provided pillows, dogs, ropes, and cooking utensils for the dead. Sometimes families would eat lunch in the tombs and leave the leftovers for the dead to eat.Very interested in animals

9.16 – Aule Metele(Orator),

Cortona, Italy. Early 1^st century BC.

The Statue is made out of bronze casting and stands at 5′ 7″ tall.  He is called the Orator because he is raising his arms to address an assembly. Aule Metele wears the short toga and high laced boots of a Roman magistrate. The style of the portrait is also Roman. His Etruscan name and his father’s and mother’s names are inscribed on the hem of his garment. His head, with its close-cropped hair and signs of age in the face resembles portraits produced in Rome at the time. He is raising his arm to address an assembly. The Orator was most likely produced at about the time the Romans achieved total hegemony over the Etruscans. Aule Metele and his compatriots became Romans, and Etruscan art became Roman art.

10. 7 – head of an old man, from Osimo,

mid 1^st century BC.

Marble.

Veristic (superrealistic) portraits of old men from distinguished families were the norm during the republic. The sculptor of this head painstakingly recorded every detail of the elderly man’s face. Shows: experience, virtue, courage, wisdom, doesn’t overreact, works towards a vision. The head also illustrates that the Romans believed that the head was enough to constitute a portrait. However, the Greeks believed the head and body were inseparable parts of an integral whole, so their proportions were always full length.

10.19 – second style wall paintings, from cubiculim M of the Villa of Publius

Fannius Synistor,

Boscoreale, Italy, ca 50-40 BC.

In this second style bedroom, the painter opened up the walls with vistas of towns, temples, and colonnaded courtyards. The convincing illusionism is due in part of the use of linear perspective. This wall painting depicts a statue of Diana Lucina bearing torches, within a larger shrine. The statue's yellow color and composition are suggestive of a bronze or perhaps gilded bronze sculpture. It is generally uncommon to be able to determine the media of statues depicted in Roman wall painting with any degree of accuracy.

10.27 – portrait of Augustus as general, from Primaporta,

Italy, early 1^st century CE.

Marble.

Augustus’s idealized portraits were modeled on Classical Greek statues and depict him as a never-aging son of a God. This portrait presents the emperor in armor in his role as general. The statue should form part of a commemorative monument to his latest victories; he is in military clothing, carrying a consular baton and raising his right hand in a rhetorical pose, addressing the troops. The bas-reliefs on his armored have a complex allegorical and political agenda, alluding to diverse Roman deities, including Mars, god of war, as well as the personifications of the latest territories conquered by him: Hispania, Gaul, Germania, Parthia (that had humiliated Crassus, and here appears in the act of returning the standards captured from his legions); at the top, the chariot of the Sun illuminates Augustus's deeds.The statue is an idealized image of Augustus based on the fifth-century BC statue of the Spear Bearer or Doryphoros by the sculptor Polykleitos. Compare the Orator in the Museo Archeologico in Florence. The Doryphoros's contrapposto stance, creating diagonals between tense and relaxed limbs, a feature typical of classical sculpture, is adapted here. The misidentification of the Doryphoros in the Roman period as representing the warrior Achilles made the model all the more appropriate for this image. Despite the Republican influence in the portrait head, the overall style is closer to Hellenistic idealisation than to the realism of Roman portraiture. Despite the accuracy with which Augustus' features are depicted (with his sombre look and characteristic fringe), the distant and tranquil expression of his face has been idealized, as have the conventional contrapposto, the anatomical proportions and the deep drape paludamentum or "cloth of the commander". On the other hand, Augustus's barefootedness and the inclusion of Cupid riding a dolphin as structural support for the statue reveals his supposed mythical ancestry to the goddess Venus (Cupid's mother) by way of his adopted father Julius Caesar. The clear Greek inspiration in style and symbol for official sculptural portraits, which under the Roman emperors became instruments of governmental propaganda is a central part of Augustian ideological campaign, a shift from the Roman Republican era iconography where old and wise features were seen as symbols of solemn character. Therefore the Primaporta statue marks a conscious reversal of iconography to the Greek classical and Hellenistic period in which youth and strength were valued as signs of leadership, emulating heroes and culminating in Alexander the Great himself. Such a statue's political function was very obvious - to show Rome that the emperor Augustus was an exceptional figure, comparable to the heroes worthy of being raised to divine status on Olympus, and the best man to govern Rome.

10.37 – portrait of Vespasian,

ca. 75-79 CE. Marble.

Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen.

Vespasian’s sculptors revived the veristic tradition of the republic to underscore the elderly new emperor’s republican values in contrast to Nero’s self-indulgence and extravagance. Bearistic portiture, realistic, but exaggerated flaws. Wrinkles, mole, rugged; signified wisdom/experience. Had to be a certain age to be in office. Comes out of the idea of creating masks of the dead.

10.49 – Pantheon, Rome,

Italy. 118-125 CE.

Originally, the approach to Hadrian’s “temple of all Gods” in Rome was from a columnar courtyard. Like a temple in a Roman forum, the Pantheon stood at one narrow end of the enclosure. Hadrian is next ruler. Temple for all of the Gods. Covered by a dome. was later turned into a Christian Church. Showed the true potential of concrete. The front looks like a rectilinear temple. Looked like a Greek temple when walking in -interior was domed - made it look larger - dome is wider at base and thinner as you go up - cement mixture is lighter as u go up - coffers (sunken decorative panels)

10.50 – Restored cutaway view and lateral section of the Pantheon,

Rome Italy. 118-125 CE.

The Pantheon traditional façade masked its revolutionary cylindrical drum and its huge hemispherical dome. The interior symbolized both the orb of the earth and the vault of the heavens.

10.51 – Interior of the Pantheon,

Rome, Italy, 118-125 CE.

The coffered dome of the Pantheon is 142 feet in diameter and 142 feet high. The light entering through its oculus forms a circular beam that moves across the dome as the sun moves across the sky. The interior of the dome was possibly intended to symbolize the arched vault of the heavens. The oculus at the dome's apex and the entry door are the only sources of light in the interior. Throughout the day, the light from the oculus moves around this space in a sort of reverse sundial effect. The oculus also serves as a cooling and ventilation method. During storms, a drainage system below the floor handles the rain that falls through the oculus. The dome features sunken panels, in five rows of twenty-eight. This evenly spaced layout was difficult to achieve and, it is presumed, had symbolic meaning, numerical, geometric, or lunar. In antiquity, the coffers may have contained bronze stars, rosettes, or other ornaments. Circles and squares form the unifying theme of the interior design. The checkerboard floor pattern contrasts with the concentric circles of square coffers in the dome. Each zone of the interior, from floor to ceiling, is subdivided according to a different scheme. As a result, the interior decorative zones do not line up. The overall effect is immediate viewer orientation according to the major axis of the building, even though the cylindrical space topped by a hemispherical dome is inherently ambiguous. This discordance has not always been appreciated, and the attic level was redone according to neoclassical taste in the 18th century

10.57 – Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, pedestal of the column of Antoninus Pius,

Rome, Italy ca. 161 CE.

Marble.

This representation of the apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina is firmly in the classical tradition with its elegant, well-proportioned figures, personifications, and single ground line. A winged genius (or sometimes identified as Aion, Eternity) carries Antoninus and his wife Faustina to Heaven. The Emperor holds a sceptre crowned with an eagle, whilst eagles also surround them. The personified male figure holding the obelisk represents the Campus Martius. Augustus had placed this obelisk there as a sundial and it was the site of the ritual of the imperial deification. The personified female figure in armour saluting the emperor and empress represents Roma, and her shield depicts the legendary founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus, suckled by a wolf.

10.58 – Decursio, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius,

Rome, Italy, ca. 161 CE.

Marble.

Antoninus Decursio reliefs break sharply with classical art conventions. The ground is the whole surface of the relief, and the figures stand on floating patches of earth. Members of the cavalry circle the standing figures, two carrying military standards and the rest fully armored. Lacking a sense of space and perspective, these scenes are often criticized for their lack of stylistic sophistication. Instead of naturalism, both a bird's eye view of the circular manoeuvre and a ground-level view of each figure are provided

10.63 – Painted portrait of Septimius Severus and his family from Egypt,

ca 200 CE.

Tempera on wood.

The only known pained portrait of an emperor shows Septimius severus with gray hair. With him are his wife Julia Domna and their two sons, but Geta’s head was removed after his demnatio memoriae.

10.75 –  Arch of Constantine,

Rome, Italy 312-315 CE.

Much of the sculptural decoration of the arch came from monuments of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. Sculptures recut the heads of the earlier emperors’ with Constantine’s features. Quote on the arch- graditude for the devine one. Lacking is a professional; he doesn’t talk about defeating anyone. Various positions of civic duties. You can see the seasons represented on both sides. Constantine attributes winning of battle to Christian God - ends persecution of Christians - complete transformation of artwork - 4 Corintiian columns (decorative) - imagery was looted from previous emperors shows decrease in creativity - heads were recut to resemble Constantine. stocky figures, very flat 2D, back to heirachal scale, no longer naturalistic, style is pre-Greek, emphasizing authority

10.77 – Portrait of Constantine, from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy,

ca. 315 -330 CE.

Marble.

Constantine’s portraits revive the Augustan image of an eternally youthful ruler. This colossal head is one of several fragments of an enthroned Jupitar-like statue of the emperor holding the orb of world power. Classical style; face and hairdo. Made half of wood. Has veins along the arm and figure; Hellenistic with classical. Stands like a Jupiter (in place of Jupiter). Has a globe in his hand. 

11.5 – The good Shepherd, the story of Jonah, and orants, painted ceiling of a cubiculum in the Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus,

Rome. Ca. early 4^th century.

Catacomb paintings mixed Old and New Testament themes. Jonah was a popular subject because he was swallowed by a sea monster and emerged safely after three days, prefiguring Christ’s Resurrection. Didn’t cremte the dead. Sometimes 3-4 stories high. 1^st Christian imagery. Imagery for instruction. Ceiling is to raise the dead to the heavens. Christ with lamb over his shoulder. Crants – the praying fugures. Praying for the dead. Jonah and the whale( thrown over and swallowed). Jonah eaten up by the gourd. Sets the stage for Christian art. The most important figure is in the center. Grave and image rule – the picture has to be seen as an image…so that it isn’t worshipped. It’s for instruction and for the dead. More elevated spiritually re less natural-strictly frontal. The people on earth look more natural. Position and gesturing is key to the pictures. The scale changes – one in the center gets the biggest. Size, placement, and style of figures is laid down by the Christians. Calf barer – is the inspiration for the Jesus in the middle.

11.7 – Sarcophagus Of Junius Bassus, from Rome, Ca 359.

Marble.

The wealthiest Christians, like the recently converted city perfect Junius Bassus, favored elaborately decorated sarcophagi. Here, biblical episodes from Adam and Eve to Christ before Pilate appear in 10 inches. Has name and date of death on top. Decorated on three sides. Christ is in the center of the Sarcophagus. Arrest of Jesus by the pilot men. Reference to Abraham and near sacrifice of Isak interrupted by an angle. Old and new testament scenes. Adam and eve, Job, and Christ riding into the city on a donkey because of his humbleness. Daniel and the lions den. Paul taken to execution. Old, new, and current time represented. Plebian style on the figures. Dressed as Romans.

11.15 – Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, Italy, ca 425.

This cruciform chapel with a domed crossing is an elderly example of the combination of central and longitudinal plans. The unadorned brick shell encloses a rich ensemble of mosaics. Mosaics are only fitting for this area because coast line is damp. Made up of individual pieces. Placed at angles so light is reflected on it. No other light except for candles. Good shepard and the lamb; everything is equal, made an ground and then pressed on the wall.