There has been a 1.4 ºF rise since 1900
The last ice age was only 4 ºF cooler than today

The temperature in 2005 was the warmest on record and probably the warmest in 1200 years. The second warmest was 2007.

By 2100, the temperature will increase by another 3–7F.

The 11 warmest years have occurred in the last 13 years.

Arctic perennial sea ice has been decreasing 8% per decade.

2005: second lowest surface coverage of sea ice on record. 2007: the lowest.
Arctic ice is getting younger. The old ice is disappearing.

How Artic Ice regulates Temp

Albedo

Arctic ice is highly reflective, returning sunlight back to space.
• The albedo is the reflectivity of a surface. It is the fraction of sunlight reflected by a surface.

If all of the light is reflected, the surface has an albedo of 1.0. If all of the light is absorbed (a black surface) the albedo is 0
• Snow has an albedo of 0.8 to 0.9
• Ocean ice: 0.5 – 0.7

• Cities = 0.07 – 0.12
• Average albedo of the whole earth = 0.3

Antartic ice loss

Greenland ice loss

land based ice enters the ocean, it raises the water level. When sea ice melts, there is no change in sea level.
Melting sea ice lets land-based ice slide off into the ocean.

would raise global sea levels by over 20 feet (six meters).

Greenland are thinning by more than 3 feet a year

Melting Surface Water in the Greenland Ice Sheet runs down tunnels called moulins to bedrock. The water lubricates the ice sheet on the bedrock speeding overland movement of the ice.

How many days early is spring?

late autumn

Northern Hemisphere, spring comes about 6 days earlier than it did 50 years ago, and autumn is delayed 5 days.
• Worldwide, spring comes 10 days earlier.

lead to greening of northern hemp - less lef loss

do not absorb incoming solar radiation

The earth’s surface absorbs the visible light which heats the land and ocean. The warm surface radiates long-wave thermal radiation (infrared light).

The absorption of the long-wave radiation by carbon dioxide and methane heats the atmosphere. The heat is trapped and not radiated back to space.

Ability to absorb thermal radiation

CO2 = 1
• Methane (natural gas, CH4) has a GWP of 23
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) = 296
• Freon = 10,000

22 billion tons of CO2 added yearly by power plants (5.2 B tons from the US).

• 3.6 - 7.3 billion tons of CO2 added from deforestation each year

• About 50% of the human-generated CO2 remains in the atmosphere, 30% dissolves in the ocean, but the fate of the other 20% is unknown.

sea will rise between 18-59 cm (7- 23 inches) by 2100

maximum possible sea level rise of 6.5 feet by 2100.

3 feet rise is certain.

A 10% decline in rainfall is projected to result in drying of 90% of the small creeks and rivers in Africa.

In California, more rain is predicted, but less snow and less of a snow pack in the mountains.

With a 2°C increase in mean annual temperature, most corals worldwide will be bleached, or lose their color due to stress.

With a 3°C increase, there will be widespread mortality.

In 1998, one of the warmest years on record, 10% of the world’s corals died.

Mitigation -  focuses on limiting greenhouse gas emissions to buy time.

Adaptation - focuses on learning to live with environmental change.

An international treaty that reduces the amount of greenhouse gases emitted by developed countries by 5.2% of 1990 levels during the five-year period 2008-2012.

Even if all countries, including the U.S., were to implement the Kyoto Protocol fully, it would not prevent the continuing buildup of greenhouse gases; it would only modestly slow their rate of buildup.

When CO2 becomes dangerousT

o keep the atmospheric CO2 below 500 ppm, we need to reduce emissions by 7 billion tons by 2056.

Each of these actions is one “wedge” in the “stabilization triangle.

• Wedge 1: Improved fuel economy to average 60 mpg.

• Wedge 2: Reduce reliance on cars.

• Wedge 3: More efficient buildings. Efficient heating, cooling, water heating, lighting, and refrigeration.

• Wedge 4: Improved power plant efficiency. Coal power plants currently operate at 32% efficiency and produce 25% of all CO2 emissions. Coal-based electricity produced at 60% efficiency.

• Wedge 5. Substitute natural gas for coal. Carbon emissions per unit of electricity are one-half for natural gas.
• Wedge 6. Carbon capture and storage at 800 coal-fired power plants.

• Wedge 7. Nuclear power for coal. Double the current nuclear energy capacity.

• Wedge 8. Increase wind power 50 fold from current levels.

• Wedge 9. Convert one-sixth of the world’s cropland to the production of ethanol (biofuels).

• Wedge 10. Stop all deforestation worldwide and increase new tree plantations at twice the current rate.

• Sediment pollution
• Sewage
• Fertilizers
• Disease-causing pathogens

chemicals

1/3 of the world has inadequate sanitation

• 39% of U.S. rivers,

45% of U.S. lakes, and

51% of U.S. estuaries

are too polluted for swimming, fishing, or drinking.

• About 25% of U.S. groundwater is contaminated

Sediments in water are suspended particles carried along by moving water. particles settle out under gravity and accumulate at the bottom of the stream or lake.

-restricted light penetration

– transport of toxic chemicals attached to the suspended particles
– suffocating marine organisms
– filling in waterways

Sewage containing human waste can enter water supplies from a number of sources

– Eutrophication (fertilizer nutrients)
– Contamination by pathogens like bacteria or viruses E. Coli,
– Oxygen consumption

oxygen-depleting potential of a contaminated water is called the Biochemical Oxygen Demand or BOD.

Water containing a lot of organic matter can lower the oxygen level of a lake or stream.

Microorganisms feed on the organic matter, consuming oxygen in the process.

• As the microbial population builds up, oxygen levels can fall enough to harm other aquatic organisms (like fish).

Fertilizer Pollution
• Fertilizer in runoff or drainage can contain high levels of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P)

• These nutrients can cause rapid growth of algae and plants, high BOD, and loss of oxygen

• Nitrate (NO3-) is also harmful in drinking water and is regulated at 10 ppm

livestock produce 20X the feces and urine that humans do

runoff into the Mississippi River, and from there into the Gulf of Mexico.
• These nutrients stimulate algae growth in the Gulf, which cause an oxygen-free “dead zone.”

This condition of zero-oxygen is called hypoxia.

recommendations to reduce nitrogen runoff by 30% by 2015

- modify farming methods to reduce fertilizer usage
- use buffer strips to catch sediment and nutrients in runoff water
- treat animal waste in sewage treatment plants
- restore former wetlands along the tributaries of the river

viruses, bacteria, and parasites like protozoa

Contamination occurs from sewage and animal waste.

Safe drinking water should have no more than one coliform bacterium per 100 mL

Safe swimming water contains <200/mL

a deadly strain of E. Coli occurred in Ontario, Canada in water

370,000 residents of Milwaukee, WI developed flu-like symptoms after drinking contaminated water (1993). Health officials realized something was wrong when all stores were sold out of diarrhea medicines.

Cryptosporidium had contaminated the water supply during heavy spring rains.

Cryptosporidium means 'hidden spore' named after the ease with which it can escape detection in samples.

is the leading single cause of severe diarrhea among infants and young children,

and is one of several viruses that cause infections commonly known as “stomach flu,” despite having no relation to influenza.

By the age of five, nearly every child in the world has been infected with rotavirus at least once.

One third of all diarrhea deaths among young children

Routine vaccination cut infection by 85%.

In Mali, 20% of the children die before their 5th birthday.

diarrhea cases dropped dramatically in children who had been given a daily dose of syrup containing 20 milligrams of zinc sulfate

Zinc tablets are now routinely used to treat diarrhea in children. The treatment lasts 3 months.

Because of widespread contamination of surface waters in Bangladesh

More than 2.5 million wells were installed. In 1993, arsenic was detected in several wells. Recent investigations have found that 85% of the total area of Bangladesh (~70 million people) are drinking water with excessive As.

Arsenic in the diet can result in skin sores that lead to cancer, as well as bladder, kidney, lung, prostate, and liver cancer.

The drinking water standard for As was set in 1975 at 50 ppb

hexavalent chromium

PG&E operates a plant that compresses natural gas cooled with ground water, which was treated with a biocide and corrosion inhibitor-chromate

The water in the ponds seeped to the groundwater and contaminated a community’s drinking water wells.

Electric power plants are responsible for 86% of all cooling water use in the US.

The hot water is often returned to the river, lake, or ocean after use affects the aquatic ecosystem

It causes more rapid oxygen depletion
• It changes the metabolism of organisms

The oxygen holding capacity of water decreases with temperature. Bacterial metabolism doubles for every 18 ºF increase in temperature.

At an electric power plant in Georgia, the number of aquatic plant species and turtles was 75% lower in ponds receiving hot water than in ponds at normal temperature.
• The number of fish species was reduced by one-third.

Storm water runoff contains toxic trace metals, organic chemicals, pathogens, trash, sediment, and BOD.

During heavy rains or snow melt, the sewage treatment facilities are overwhelmed and untreated wastewater (sewage mixed with urban runoff) flows into nearby waterways or bays.

• Screening to remove large chunks

• Primary treatment by settling to remove floating and sinking material (about 4 hours)

• The solid material from the settling is called raw sludge, which is sent for treatment by anaerobic bacteria in a “digester” (treatment time ~ 2 weeks).

• The liquid from the primary treatment is sent on for secondary treatment.

Secondary treatment is an aerobic, biological process to remove BOD and additional suspended solids.

-activated sludge treatment, the water is mixed with a bacterial suspension digest the organic matter in the wastewater

water from the secondary settling tanks is chlorinated to kill disease-causing organisms and discharged to a river, lake, ocean, or groundwater.

Established the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) for point source discharge to surface waters.

Established standards for wastewater that is to be discharged into the environment

Set industry pretreatment standards prior to discharge

• Provided funding for wastewater treatment plants

Established standards for maximum contaminant levels (MCLs)

Gave EPA enforcement power to guarantee safe public water supplies

• Banned lead in pipe solder

• Required municipal water suppliers to tell consumers what contaminants are in the delivered

Philadelphia incinerates most of its municipal solid waste. The ash is so toxic that no state will accept it.

In 1986, a group of N.Y. mobsters agreed to take the ash and have it properly disposed of in a foreign country.

• The ship “Khian Sea” hauled 14,000 tons of ash to Haiti and dumped 4,000 tons on the beach, claiming it was “fertilizer.” There was an uproar. “We are nobody's outhouse. If they have so many acres of land in the United States, why should they dump their garbage on other people?”

• The ship sailed the seas looking for a place that would take the waste, but finally appeared two years later, empty.

• It is reported that the ash was dumped in the Indian ocean.

United States 1920

Australia 1500

Switzerland 920

pds/person year

About 54% of U.S. waste

compact and cover waste each day

traps methane gas=explosions

ground water pollution

landfills are filling up and not opening new ones

About 15% of our waste is incinerated.

Waste must be separated to remove items that don't burn or release hazardous materials when burned. such as batteries, glass, food, plastic, computers

advantages of incineration
– 90% waste reduction
– Potential for using heat as an energy source

Waste-to-energy incinerators produces less CO2 than  coal-burning power plant

Disadvantages

– Production of toxic air pollutants Fly ash and bottom ash contain toxic trace metals and must be buried in special landfills

- Incinerators produce dioxins, very toxic and must be trapped

-pollution control make this very costly

-Yard waste (grass clippings, branches, and leaves
substantial component of municipal solid waste. M

Yard waste is chipped and mixed with sewage sludge
food waste, and animal manures to make compost.

The waste is placed in piles and aerated to stimulate microbial activity in the compost pile. T

he compost can be used as a low-grade fertilizer, mulch (ground cover to reduce e
weeds), and soil amendment.

US exports 3 million tons of hazardous and toxic waste

Basel Convetion prohibits shipping of toxic waste

U.S. 3rd largest export is scrap to china where it is recycled since china has few natural resources

(airplanes and semiconductors are first and second)

Float to surface in landfills

fire hazard

42% incinerated

22% burried

36% recycled - place in liquid N2 and fractured, steel is removed. 10% of asphalt its tire

Northewast US=84%

South=30%

Midwest=61%

West=77%

80% of US trash can be recycled, we only do 33%

– 28% of its glass

– 48% of its aluminum
– 28% of the plastic

– 35% of the old tires
75% of an old car is recycled

U.S. has 28% of the world’s supply of coal and half our electricity comes from the burning of coal.

130 million tons of ash a year

80% fly ash

-sent to landfills

-concrete

-soil pH changer

Most computers contain 3-8 pounds of lead in solder

Currently, 10-11% of discarded computer components are recycled

contamination to soil, air, and water,

Plastics do not degrade in landfills, and make up 12% of the volume

recycle ~28% of what we produce

Flammable, Corrosive, Reactive=explosive, Poisonous

1% of all US waste is hazardous

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

-governs waste produced, no landfills, required permit

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compenstaion, and Liability Act (CERCLA)

-established superfund to clean up waste sites but most money is spent on litigation

-400,00 sites, 1558 on Superfund National Priorities List, 1000 have been cleand

-93 SNPL in California

Source reduction

-less PCE from dry cleaners

-gas stations fix underground tanks

Conversion to less hazardous materials

-chemical conversion

-bioremediation=use of micro organisms to clean

Excavation and removal of hazardous soil and solid waste (45% of Superfund sites)

Covering the land with protective cap 39%

Pumping and treating groundwater 34%

Extracting toxic gas 8%

Bioremediation: 3%

Making plutonium for atomic bomb

Releases radioactive materials into air and river

-must replace underground storage tanks by turning it into glass to yucca mountain

• The US has <5% of the world’s population but controls 25% of the world’s economy.
• 19% of the world’s population controls 79% of the world’s finances. Two billion people earn less than $2/day.

Developing countries need economic growth that will provide for the people’s health, nutrition, and education. Only 10% of the world’s scientist and engineers live in developing countries. Of those 10%, nearly all are in China, Brazil, Mexico, and India.

Norway .87%

Luxembourg .85%

Denmark .84%

increasing at 80 million per year.

Most of the growth is in poor, developing countries in the large cities. 7 children per woman

Reach carrying capacity in 50 to 100 years. is 10 billion

• Only 1 tree in 10 cut down is replaced in Latin America
• Almost no planting occurs in Africa
• 1.5 billion people depend on firewood for fuel and the demand greatly exceeds the supply

• Tropical rainforest lands are cleared for agriculture and grazing, and quickly abandoned

Stockholm Convention:

Montreal Protocol

Kyoto Protocol:

Copenhagen Conference
 Basel Convention

Copenhagen Conference on Climate Change

Montreal Protocol: Elimination of CFCs and Ozone Hole

Kyoto Protocol: Reduction in Greenhouse Gases

• Stockholm Convention: Ridding the World of Persistent Pollutants
• Basel Convention: No Foreign Dumping of Toxic Wastes