Plunkitt of Tammany Hall

• For dishonest graft, one worked soley for one's own interests, while for honest graft, one pursued the interests of one's party, one's state, and one's personal interests all together.
• Plunkitt bought land without knowing the gov't would be developing on it but they usually did, and when they did, he sold it to them at a high price.
• Significance: It was Plunkitt's attempt to reverse the negative media attention which political machines were receiving for being corrupt. Plunket acknowledges that politicians make money, but then differentiates b/w criminal and honest ways of doing so. it reveals the political atmosphere of urban spaces run by political machines.

Plunkitt of Tammany Hall

• Refers to reform committees like The Citizens' Union that started out really good but only last a few years. 
• Significance: Shows that you need to know the political game in order to play hard ball in politics. These reformers have been going into things w/out much practice while the politicans have been practicing all of their lives and know ever fine point of the political game.

Riordan - Plunkitt of Tammany Hall

• According to Plunkitt, the Civil Service Reform is a civil service law that is "the biggest fraud of the age," it would create a merit-based system in which those who take gov't office are those who passed the civil service examination. Men who have patriotism lose it when they take the civil services examination. There are 10,000 good offices, but we can't give no more than a few hundred of them. When men who wanted to serve their country can't be placed, they become an Anarcist.
• While a standard is created for Civil Service workers in gov't, many people will lose jobs.

Riordan - Plunkitt on Tammany Hall

• Machines run off of citzen support - w/out their votes, the machine can't work. If the machine can't work, there is really no point of having it and thus it will die out. This shows how the machine worked in exchange for votes - the machine would give its supporters jobs and other forms of patronage as thanks for their support.
• Significance: Political allies in one election could turn into enemies in the next.

Lecture - Week 3

• There are 3 ways of who runs/dominates a city (power relationships)
• Cities are ruled by an economic/business elite. We pretend that voting matters but the people who wield the real political power are the ones who have economic power. 
• Pluralists argue that the gov't is run democratically b/c although there are various interst groups vying for power, politicians call the shots b/c if they don't, the public won't re-elect them (anticipatory power).
• Neo-elitist view is that economic elites use their influence to keep important issues off the political agenda to keep their power b/c capitalist democracies favor the needs of those who produce revenue over those who consume it (non-decisions).
• Significance: Those w/money, who create revenue, set the agenda in politics. Even if a community popularly supports or opposes a policy, the interest groups w/the most power can influence policy.

Lecture 7

• A set of political changes made during the late 19th/early 20th century. They reformed several political institutions as well as the political system. For instance, nonpartisanship was a change made that prevented party labels from being placed on the ballot. Reason for posting this was b/c often times in the past, people voted by party and they would select all parties of a candidate. Nonpartisanship attempted to change that.
• Significance: They were made in an attempt to take power away from political bosses to make them weaker. Political bosses used to give people jobs and contracts in exchange for supporting the political machine, so reforms such as having people take civil service examinations and having contractors are important changes made by structural reforms. W/out structural reforms, political bosses would have likely still had power.

Lecture 12

• Significance: As federal gov't provides states to control in certain key areas, such as matters involving health, safety, and morals, the states and cities have more power. For that reason, the smaller cities with lots of money can do more than the cities.

Lecture 13

• It is the increase in the # of local gov'ts throughout California. They seek to achieve autonomy from the county. As a result, these local gov'ts would have more control over several things such as land use.
• Significance: When prop 13 passed, it made it cheaper for cities to incorporate. Therefore, many decided to create their own local governments b/c it allowed them to have greater control over their territories. For instance, cities were able to tell the county that they did not want something to be placed in their territory. The county would more likely to have listened to them. There would be no more property taxes, more autonomy, and more control over land use. Several small cities, such as Vernon and Industry, decided to incorporate for these reasons. That is why governmental proliferation has been popular among several parts of California.

Meaning:

• The inability of cities to recaputre revenues of suburban dwellers, even when those subrbanites may still rely on central city services, may cause insolvency.
• Suburbs may free ride on city infrastructure, using ports, airports and other resources w/out paying.
• City unions and poor populations placed demands on central cities they were unable to afford.

Ryan Adames - Lecture 13

• Cut the amount of taxes that people paid on property. It also said that the maximum taxation that a person would be taxed on a piece of property would be 1% of assessed valuation. It also set the maximum annual increase in assessed valuation to 2%.
• Significance: It affected the revenues that cities would receive. Before 13 passed, lots of cities received a majority of their revenue from taxing properties. They also increased the amount of tax every year dramatically. So when 13 came into effect, they lost a lot of revenue and they to find some other way to make up for this loss. There was a decline in infrastructure and California debt went up dramatically.

Tom Hogen-esch in the URBAN SECESSION AND THE POLITICS OF GROWTH: THE CASE OF L.A.

• Valley Voters Organized Toward Empowerment (Valley VOTE)
• as an effort by business & homeowner interest to erect political boundaries to ensure local consumption of the tax base.
• the theory's emphasis on "land-use intensification"
• suggests that growth machine theory and urban literature often overstate the level of antagonism b/w rentier and homeowner groups.
• was a new and improved secession bill to remove the city's veto power over secession
• three arguments in favor of ssuccession:
  1. Valley does not receive its fair share of city services
  2. smaller gov'ts are more efficient and voters' common sense tells them that the closer they are to gov't, the more it will respond to their demands
  3. local control is a euphemism for asserting political power over the institutions of American local gov't. 

Carol Lewis TED reading

• Meaning: A balanced budget occurs when the total sum of money a gov't collects in a year is equal to the amount it spends on goods, services, and debt interest
• Significance: Balanced Budgets play a piviotl role in municipal budgeting and are a common legal requiremen. They are considered an operative norm by participants in the budgetary process.
• The artcile, Budgetary Balance, uses a case study of Bridgeport to show that some cities tried to avoid having to balance their budget by declaring bankruptcy which is an unaccepted method.

Lecture 5

• Meaning: States that in 1868, Iowa Judge John Dillon ruled U.S. municipalities as mere "creatures of the state." They are not soveriegn and do not possess a right to protection against "impairing the obligation of contract" by the state legislature.
• Significance: Cities are not treated as autonomous corporations like citizens or private businesses. Municipal corporations are valued according to their niche in the state's economy and may be abridged if they behave economically irresponsible. Compare home rule...

Lecture 3

• Meaning: The Great Depression was caused by a U.S. stock market crash in 1929, known as Black Thursday. It gave way to Roosevelt's New Deal Program, which intended to revive the U.S. economy and way of life. The New Deal focused on the 3 R's: Relief, Reform, & Recovery. The First 100 Days entailed 15 messages to Congress, the enactment of 15 major laws, 10 speechs, weekly press conferences & cabinet meetings, sponsorship of an internation conference, and decisions for all major foreign and domestic policy acts. The 1st and 2nd 100 Days targeted the country as a whole w/the establishment of economic programs that focused on new schools, welfare, hospitals, etc.
• Significance: While the Depression devastated the lives of many, the New Deal brought forth hope. The authority of the federal gov't increased and the establishment of new federal programs/agencies served to protect the rights of citizens. Moreover, public works projects improved American transportation routes.

Source: Stone "System power in community decision-making"

• Meaning: The stratified society compose a power frame that influence the decision-making process.
• The impacts on urban politics are a reduction of elected officials autonomy and a constant defense of upper strata's interest.

Source: Sugrue's "Motor City to Motor Metropolis"

• Meaning: Refers to the depopulation and abandonment of the city which began with the decentralization of the auto industry. The origin of Detroit's power was through the development of automobile factories at the turn of the century. It allowed the population to increase over 500% in 30 years.
• However, the popularity of automobiles led workers to move out of the city and into suburbs and out of the factories (factories were developed outside of the city). This hurt the economy when the old factories were unable to redevelop.
• Significance: The decline represents how suburbanization affects the urban city. Although the automobile industry grew and lead to urban growth, it eventually led to decentralization - it assisted in its own decline.

Source: Foglesong "When Disney Comes to Town"

• Meaning: Describes Walt Disney World as a city-state within the larger state controlled by the Disney company, b/c of Reedy Creek charter, enjoyig regulatorypowers reserved by law for popularly elected governments.
• Significance: 

Source: Schragger

• Meaning: Cities are byproduct, product or process:
   
• Byproduct - cities came into existence b/c of trade ports. As technology of travel evolved, cities became the byproduct of transportation.
• Product - Gov't makes urban spaces for firmst to settle in and develop. Firms bring in capital and some to the gov't. Gov't invests capital in public works and protection (police). Cities compete to attract persons, goods and capital. Cities are the product of the supply and demand of city land for firms/gov'ts.
• Process - Cities thrive like a ripple effect. Small changes in a neighborhood riple out and eventually change the city as a whole.
• Significance: The idea that cities are a result of innovations in transportation suggests that cities are a mere byproduct of natural human involvement that is allowed to move further from the center of business.
• The idea that cities are in competition w/one another to retain business suggests that cities are a product of local gov'ts in that they create a city by providing amneties to businesses and labor. Yet, we can find exampels of cities emerging w/out proper infrastructure and those w/out established culture or political structure. This leads the idea of a city as a process.
• The city is a developing embryo, there is no real control in how a city will turn out.

Judd & Swanstrom

• Meaning: Public housing was a federal subsidized urban renewal program. Enacted in 1949, the Housing Act made a commitment to rebuild cities, eliminate slums and blight, and provide decent housing for the nation's cities. Legislation received support from key business, real estate, and housing interests. The Housing and Home Finance Agency (HHFA) was established to distribute graints-in-aid to help local urban renewal agencies acquire land at bargain prices. HHFA provided loans to cover the cost of land assembly and site clearance, and authorized the construction of low-rent public housing.
• Significance: Despite its intent to provide housing for the needy, local gov'ts took advantage of HHFA flexible provisions to favor commerical development instead of its intended effect to provide residential housing. Business leaders and politicians believed that public housing would negatively impact property values. PH was ambitious but it encountered resistance from local politicans who did not want integration w/their own neighborhoods. Any attempts were responded w/protest and violence. 
• Suburbanites felt that black movement into the white neighborhoods would bring down property values, therefore, slums were torn down w/the promise of making new public housing developments. Public housing efforts were abandoned by the time Reagan took office.

From: J&S

• Combined effort b/w city and business interests to invest money into a downtown area to bolster its property values and to increase infrastructure in shopping facilities, parking structures, etc. These projects often receive a great deal of scrutiny for their use of Eminent Domain to uproot small businesses in order to develop large swaths of commercial real estate and shopping districts. There is often little opportunity for public opinion to have a say in the process.
• First reason for downtown revival: Downtowns are becoming the centers of businesses connected to a new global economy centered around electronic trade and commerce, telecommunications, finance, marketing, and corporate services.
• 2nd reason: Tourism/entertainment, culture, and urban amenities are becoming clustered in and near downtown areas. Affluent residents want to live in an exciting environment with these amnenities.

From: J&S

• Meaning: Deindustrialization refers to the rapid restructuring of urban economies from industrial to the service sector during the 70's to the 90's as a result of technological advanements and immigration/outsourcing.
• Gentrification refers to the process of affluent newcomers moving into a neighborhood, driving up land values, and as a result, the less affluent/minority/older residents are forced to move out.
• Significance: Deindustrialization contributed to an increase in employment in the service industry, and this accompanied the rapid loss of manufacturing jobs. Affluent individuals tended to gravitate towards downtown areas where property values were higher, and outside of the downtown, members of affluent middle class lived within condo towers or gated communities to be protected from poverty-stricken areas. These tiers of employment ushered by deindustrialization is what allowed previously dilapidated neighborhoods to be revived, historic architecture to be preserved, tourism in these areas to be expanded, and the rise of creative class in downtown areas.

From: J&S

• Meaning: Long-term bonds issued by cities to generate revenues to pay capital improvements & provide adequate services. There are 2 types:
  1) General obligation bonds are used to build public infrastructure
  2) Revenue bonds are paid off by future revenues from the facilities that are constructed.
• Many municipal bonds are purhcased by investors wo find the federal tax exemption
• Significance: Abuses such as private purposes, risky investments, and underwriters could lead economic crisis of the local governments. A bond rating represents the credit quality of the municipality, but ratings are almost worthless b/c the highest rated bonds recorded the highest incident of default b/w '29 and '33.
• The market in municipal bonds exerts a powerful influence on public officials by imposing a tight fiscal discipline, and by reinforcing the dynamic of the metropolitan chase for business investment and affluent residents.

From: J&S

• The urban development process that involved using pre-existing structures and turning them into housing, businesses and other new developments. This is the opposite of sprawl & rather in the inward growth of the city. Smart Growth was coined by the governor of Maryland to describe policies he proposed and to aim at building public infrastructure in designated growth areas while at the same time protecting other areas from developments. Smart Growth became popular for its positive connotations. Environmental agencies supported and agreed w/Smart Growth b/c it battled population growth. Smart Growth was supposed to the answer to urban sprawl b/c growth should occur but balance with growth.
• Significance: Smart Growth became an issue when it began to seclude people by race/ethnicity from the Smarth Growth suburbs.

From: J&S Ch.9

• Refers to the sunbelt cities and states that became part of the defense economy during the Eisenhower era. Ex: San Diego had almost no water for the local population in the 60s, so they ended up getting their supply from the Colorado River Aqueduct b/c of the importance the water supply was to the US Navy.
• Significance: The local economy depended almost entirely on its relation to the armed forces, which Eisenhower warned them against his Farewell Address. He worried that the "military-industrial complex" could potentially bring the rise of misplaced power. Local representatives were able to vote in congress keeping military/federal spending in the sunbelt, which also contributed to funding for local infrastructure.

From: J&S

• Meaning: Incorporation of helping cities in covert ways. Clinton tried to do this by targeting "all low to moderate-income groups, not just minorities." This was to help him get more white votes and assuming blacks would just fall in line w/his targeted group.
• Significance: By doing this, money would go to help urban populations w/out having to advertise that as a motivation. Unfortunately, the only initiative that went through was the EZ/EC program.

From: J&S

• Meaning: Clinton was focused on getting the white suburban vote in the '92 election. The EMPOWERMENT ZONES/ENTERPRISE COMMUNITIES wanted to "cut taxes and regulations in inner cities, w/the intention of stimulating investment in depressed neighborhoods. Investment in these zones was encouraged through tax credits for people who hired residents of the zones, eligibilty for "accelerated depreciation" on property for businesses in the zones, and construction in the zones was supported by "tax-exempt bond financing."
• Residents who needed an education, job training, or child care were also given grants. 31 empowerment zones were created in the US along w/ 74 "distressed areas" that also won grants, this, along w/other social welfare programs, was cut by 1994 when the Republicans controlled both houses of Congress.

From: J&S - as well as: Gotham's "Growth machine Up-Links"

• Meaning: set of programs proposed by Lyndon Johnson. The 2 main goals were to end poverty and racial discrimination. "Eliminate poverty and treat other social ills through federal action on civil rights, the cities, health care, welfare, education, and employment."
• Significance: When Kennedy was assassinated, the civil rights bill had just reached the House Rules Committee. Johnson pushed the Civil Rights Bill quickly & began implementing programs, wanting to be perceived as the 2nd Roosevelt. There was an explosion of federal spending and a shift to believing the federal gov't was responsible for changing the fate of the nation. The largest significance was Johnson's "War on Poverty." Unfortunately, the funds were spread as thinly as thought necessary to secure annual program budgets. The deleterious effect of this strategy was that it virtually guaranteed that no program in any city could deliver on its promises.