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Most important single route waste product removal in body, especially soluble waste and excess water - respiratory system removes CO2 and water vapour - sweat glands remove water, salts, some urea - digestive system removes bile salts, and pigments - urinary system removes urea, salts, water and other soluble products 2 kidneys 2 ureters 1 urinary bladder 1 urethra Kidney = greek nephr/o, latin ren/o -produce urine to eliminate metabolic wastes -maintain homeostasis -blood filtration, reabsorption and secretion -fluid balance regulation -acid-base balance regulation -hormone production (erythropoeitin and prostaglandins |
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renal pelvis: funnel-shaped collection chamber inside hilus, beginning or ureter, transitional epithelium lined; not in cattle outer renal cortex, rough appearance inner renal cortex, smooth appearance Multipyramidal/multilobar (pig, cattle) Unipyramidal/unilobar (dog, cat, horse) Calyx: cup-like extension renal pelvis |
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-basic functional unit of the kidney -microscopic filtering, reabsorbing and secreting systems -renal corpuscle -proximal convoluted tubule -loop of henle -distal convoluted tubule |
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renal corpuscle in cortex, filters blood, fluid called glomerular filtrate - glomerulus: tuft of capillaries - bowman's capsule: double walled (parietal and visceral layers); space between, capsular space Proximal convuluted tubule (PCT) longest, twisting -continuation of capsular space of bowman's capsule; in cortex -cuboidal epithelial cells with brush border -becomes tubular filtrate (primitive urine) Loop of Henle -U-turn into medulla, cuboidal cells, brush border -simple squamous epithelium, ascends into cortex Distal convuluted tubule (DCT) -continuation distal loop of henle in cortex -empty into collecting ducts, carry tubular filtrate -ADH site of action -K+ regulation, control of acid-base balance |
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25% blood pumped by heart goes to kidneys circulating blood passes through every 4-5 mins abdominal aorta >renal artery (enters hilus)>arteries> arterioles>afferent glomerular arterioles> glomerular capillaries (filter plasma out, into capsular space of bowman's capsule, now glomerular filtrate)>efferent glomerular/peritubular capillaries (O2 transfer)> venules>veins>renal vein> abdominal vena cava |
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Filtration - in renal corpuscle, high blood pressure forces plasma from glomerular capillaries (many pores) into capsular space - glomerular filtrate contains no protein or cells - Glomerular Filtration Rate:measure how fast plasma filtered as passes through glomerulus; depends on rate of blood flow to kidney Reasorption Secretion |
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glomerular filtrate contains wastes and Na, Ca, K, Mg, glucose, amino acids, Cl, HCO3, and water all required to maintain homeostasis becomes tubular filtrate in PCT, Na pumped out (reabsorbed), glucose and amino acids follow passively, into interstitial fluid, then into peritubular capillaries Aldosterone influences reabsorption of Na from loop of henle and distal convulted tubule, exchanged for H, NH3, K K, Ca, Mg (influenced by PTH - parathyroid hormone), reabsorbed in Proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, Distal convoluted tubule and or collecting ducts Cl reabsorbed by diffusion, water follows by osmosis, urea also 65% reabsorbed in PCT (80% water, Na, Cl, HCO3, 100% glucose and amino acids) |
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Transfer from peritubular capillaries to interstitial fluid, tubular epithelial cells, to tubular filtrate (opposite of reabsorption), mostly in distal convoluted tubule waste products and foreign substances not being filtered sufficiently in glomerulus: H, K, NH3, drugs (penicillin, sulfonamides) |
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determined by amount of water in tubular filtrate when reaches renal pelvis - ADH increases water reabsorption (DCT, collecting ducts) - Aldosterone increases Na reabsorption, water follows by osmosis (DCT, collecting ducts), if ADH present pressure in bowman's capsule > renal pelvis, forces fluid to move along through the tubules of the nephron |
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continuation of renal pelvis, leave kidneys at hilus layers: outer fibrous, middle smooth muscle, inner transitional epithelium urine moved to bladder by peristalsis, walls can stretch enter bladder at oblique angle; when bladder full, prevents retrograde flow of urine towards the kidneys, but urine can still enter bladder due to peristalsis |
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collects, stores, and releases urine muscular sac and neck, lined with transitional epithelium, muscle: - involuntary smooth muscle bundles - run length wise, obliquely and circular directions - voluntary skeletal muscles - sphincter at neck urination (micturation or uresis) controlled by 1)urine accumulation 2)smooth muscle contraction 3)sphincter muscle control |
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urine accumulation until pressure reaches trigger point, stretch receptors in bladder wall activated spinal reflex returns motor impulse to smooth muscles to contract, urge to urinate voluntary control of sphincter muscles (house training); limit to bladder capacity, walls thinner with stretching, can rupture |
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Continuation of bladder neck, transitional epithelium lined, carried urine to outside of body shorter and wider in females, open in ventral vagina long and narrow in male, down center of penis; vas deferens and accessory sex glands enter: during ejaculation, sperm and seminal fluid discharged and urinary sphincter closes |
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Renal Dysfunction and Uremia |
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Definition
urinary system unable to remove wastes from blood adequately: uremia (urine in blood) results, increased BUN Prerenal uremia: decrease in blood flow to kidneys so waste products not removed (dehydration, congestive heart failure, shock) although kidneys functioning Renal uremia: damage to nephrons (2/3 non-functional before clinical signs appear) by toxins, inflammation, infections;adequate blood flow but decrease functional neurons to filter wastes Postrenal uremia: obstruction (tumors, blood clots, uroliths) preventing urine expulsion and decreas flow; eventually, urine backs up into renal pelvis, increase pressure that damages nephrons and leads to renal dysfunction
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works together with nervous system to maintain homeostasis primary function: produces hormones hormones act on specific target cells to produce specific effects |
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chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and secreted directly into blood vessels produce effects when they find their specific receptors in or on cells a cell that has receptors for a particular hormone is referred to as a target of that hormone |
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Control of hormone secretion |
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Definition
negative feedback system: when the level of a specific hormone drops below needed levels, the appropriate endocrine gland is stimulated to produce more hormone once the proper hormone level is present in the bloodstream, stimulation of that endocrine gland is reduced and production of that hormone is reduced direct stimulation from the nervous system Secretion of some hormones is stimulated by the sympathetic nerve impulses when and animal feels threatened (fight or flight response) |
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Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal cortex Adrenal medulla Pancreas (islets) Testis Ovary |
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Part of diencephalon section of the brain controls activities of the pituitary gland portal system of blood vessls links hypothalamus with anterior portion of pituitary gland modified neurons in the hypothalamus secrete releasing and inhibiting factors into portal blood vessels - specific for a particular antieror putuitary hormone modified neurons in the hypothalamus also secrete antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin transported to posterior pituitary for storage released into the blood stream by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus |
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Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) |
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Definition
Two separate gland with different structures, functions, and embryological origins Anterior pituitary - adenohypophysis; rostral portion - stimulated by hypothalamus and direct feedback from target organs and tissues to produce its hormones Posterior pituitary - neurohypophysis; caudal portion - stores and releases hormones produced in hypothalamus |
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The Anterior Pituitary hormones |
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Definition
F - (FSH)- Follicle Stimulating Hormone L - (LH)- Luteinizing hormone A - (ACTH)- Adrenocorticotropic Hormone T - (TSH)- Thyroid Stimulating Hormone G - (GH) - Growth Hormone M - (MSH) - Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone P - Prolactin |
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also known as somatotropin and somatotropic hormone promotes body growth in young animals helps regulate the metabolism of proteins, carbs, and lipids in al the body's cells |
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Helps trigger and maintain lactation - secretion of milk by the mammary glands Prolactin production and release continues as long as the test or nipple continues to be stimulated by nursing or milking When prolactin stimulation stops, milk production stops, and the mammary gland shrinks back to ist nonlactating size |
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Thyroid Stimulating Hormone |
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Definition
also known as thyrotropic hormone stimulates growth and development of thyroid gland and causes it to produce its hormones secretion is regulated by feedback from the thyroid gland - has direct effects on anterior pituitary gland through changes in TSH - releasing factor produced by the hypothalamus |
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) |
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Definition
stimulates growth and development of the adrenal cortex and release of some of its hormones regulated by feedback from the hormones of the adrenal ACTH can also be released quickly as a result of stimulation of the hypothalamus by other parts of the brain - hypothalamus sends a burst of ACTH - releasing factor to the anterior pituitary through the portal system causing ACTH to be released quickly |
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Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) |
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Definition
in female, stimulates growth and development of ovarian follicles - oogensis - also stimulates cells lining the follicles to produce and secrete estrogens in the male, stimulates spermatogenesis |
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after ovulation,LH stimulates cells in the empty follicle to multiply and develop into the corpus luteum - corpus luteum produces progestin hormones necessary for the maintenace of the pregnancy in the male, LH stimulates interstitial cells to develop and produce testosterone |
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Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) |
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Definition
associated with control of colour changes in the pigment cells (melanocytes) of reptiles, fish, and amphibians administration of artificially large amounts of MSH to higher mammals can cause darkening of the skin from melanocyte stimulation |
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Definition
stores two hormones produced in the hypothalamus antidiuretic hormone and oxcytocin transported from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary and stored in nerve endings periodically released into the bloodstream in response to nerve impulses from hypothalamus |
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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) |
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Definition
Helps prevent diuresis receptors in hypothalamus detect changes in osmotic pressure of blood that result from dehydration/hemoconcentration generates nerve impulses - causes release of ADH - ADH travels to the kidney - causes kidneys to reabsorb more water from the urine and return it to the bloodstream ADH deficiency causes diabetes insipidus |
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Definition
effects on uterus - causes contraction of the myometrium at the time of breeding and at parturition - increases uterine contractions that aid transport of spermatozoa to the oviducts - stimulates uterine contractions that aid in the delivery of the fetus and the placenta Effect on active mammary glands - causes movement of milk down to the lower parts of the gland (milk letdown) - stimulation of the test or nipple by nursing or milking causes oxytocin to be released into the bloodstream - causes contraction of the myoepithelial cells around the mammary gland alveoli and small ducts - forces milk into the lower parts of the gland |
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Thyroid Gland, hormones and effects of the hormones |
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Definition
The Thyroid Gland consists of 2 lobes on either side of the larynx - lobes may be connected by isthmus thyroid hormone is produced in follicles - simple cuboidal glandular cells surrounding globule of thyroid hormone precursor Thyroid Hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (tetraiodothyronine, or thryoxine) produced in greater abundance then T3 but is mostly converted to T3 before producing effects on target cells Effects of Thyroid hormones influences development and maturation of CNS, growth and development of muscles and bones caloringenic effect - regulates the metabolic rate of all the body's cells allows animal to generate heat and maintain constant internal body temp production increases with exposure to cold and then increasses metabolic rate to generate more heat affects metabolism of proteins, carbs, and lipids like GH does |
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produced by C cells located between thyroid follicles helps maintain blood calcium levels prevents hypercalcemia by encouraging excess calcium to be deposited in the bones calcium is involved in muscle contraction, blood clotting, millk secretion and formation and mainenance of the skeleton |
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Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) |
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Definition
also called parathormone produced by the parathyroid glands - small, pale nodules in, on or near the thyroid glands helps maintain blood calcium levels prevents hypocalcemia - causes kidneys to retain calcium and intestine to absorb calcium from food; withdraws calcium from bones |
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located near the cranial ends of the kidneys consist of two glands 1) adrenal cortex 2) adrenal medulla |
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Produces numerous steroid hormones classified into 3 main groups 1) Glucocorticoids: cortisone, cortisol, and corticosterone - hyperglycemic effect - Also helps maintain BP and help the body resist the effects of stress 2) Mineralocorticoids: eg) aldosterone - regulates the level of important electrolytes (mineral salts) in the body 3) Sex Hormones: androgens and estrogens
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produces epinephrine and norepinephrine sectretion is controlled by the sympathetic portion of the autonomic nervous system (fight or flight response) increases heart rate and output, increases blood pressure, dilates air passageways in the lungs, and decreases GI function |
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Pancreas and Pancreatic hormones
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located near the duodenum has both exocrine and endocrine functions endocrine component- small percentage of the total volume of the organ pancreatic islets (islets langerhans): groups of cells scattered throughout the pancreas - alpha cells - produce glucagon - beta cells - produce insulin - delta cells - produce somatosin Pancreatic Hormones Insulin: lowers blood glucose levels by causing glucose, amino acids and fatty acids to be absorbed into body cells Glucagon: raises blood glucose levesl by stimulating liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose by stimulating gluconeogenesis Somatostatin: inhibits secretion or insulin, glucagon, and GH; diminishes GI activity |
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Interstitial cells: clumps or endocrine cells Produce androgens when stimulated by LH - interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) in the male Testosterone: primary adrogen - provides for development of male secondary sex characteristics and accessory sex glands - activates spermatogenesis |
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Produce ova and hormones in cycles controlled by follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) Hormone groups produced in the ovaries: 1) estrogens 2) progestins |
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Definition
FSH stimulates ovarian follicles to develop - cells of follicles produce and release estrogens - amount or estrogen produced increases as follicle grows Increasing estrogen levels accelerate physical and behavioural changes feedback to anterior pituitary - cause anterior pituitary gland to reduce the production of FSH and increase the production of LH When follicle is fully mature, LH level peaks - in most animal species, ovulation occurs when LH level peaks |
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Definition
group of hormones produced by corpus luteum high LH level stimulates cells of empty follicle to multiply and develop into corpus luteum progesterone - principle progestin - helps prepare uterus tor receive fertilized ovum; needed to maintain pregnancy in pregnant female, hormone signal is sent from uterus, and corpus luteum is maintained if no pregnancy occurs, lack of hormone signal causes corpus luteum to shrink and disappear |
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produce erythropoeitin - stimulates red bone marrow to increase production of RBCs production of erythropoeitin stimulated by hypoxia as RBC production increases, more oxygen feeds back to kidneys and slows the production of erythropoeitin |
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gastrin: produced by cells in teh wall of the stomach secretion stimulated by presence of food in the stomach stimulates gastric glands to secrete hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes encourages muscular contractions of the stomach wall |
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secretin and cholecystokinin produced by cells in the lining of the small intestine secretion occurs in response to presence of chyme in duodenum secretin stimulates pancreas to secrete fluid to neutralize acidic chyme after it passes out of the stomach Cholecystokinin stimulates pancreas to releas digestive enzymes into the duodenum |
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Surrounds a developing fetus during pregnancy acts as an interface with the maternal circulation produces hormones to help support and maintain pregnancy - estrogen and progesterone - chorionic gonadotropin (some species) |
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extends cranially from the level of the heart up into neck region along both sides of the trachea large in young animals, atrophies later in life function involves hormones or homonelike chemical substances (ed. thymosin and thymopoeitin) seems to cause certain cells to be transformed into T-lymphocytes |
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located at caudal end of cleft that separates the 2 cerebral hemispheres influences cyclic activities in the body melatonin-hormonelike substance called that seems to affect moods and wake-sleep cycles - may also paly a role in the timing of seasonal estrous cycles in some species |
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Definition
hormonelike substances derived from unsaturated fatty acids produced in a variety of body tissues (skin, intestine, brain, kidney, lungs, reproductive organs, and eyes) nine main groups- designated groups A through I - subscript numbers and Greek letters designate subgroups influence blood pressure, blood clotting, inflammation, GI, respiratory, reproductive, and kidney function |
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