Term
|
Definition
amateur scientist, got conclusions through induction (using experiments to come to a conclusion), his findings were recorded; reliable and repeatable
1561-1626, was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author and pioneer of the scientific method. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. He remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution.
Bacon has been called the creator of empiricism. His works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method.
Englishman, lawyer and lord chancellor
Rejected Copernicus and Kepler, misunderstood Galileo
Set out to establish correct scientific method—urged scientists to proceed from the particular to the general (built on inductive reasoning)
Wanted to advance modern science and technology, “to conquer nature in action” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1514-1564) On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543); reshaped views of the human inners
1512-1657 Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy used real humans for the first time to personally dissecting a body to illustrate what he was discussing.
Studied medicine in Paris with Galen
Galen’s test On Anatomical Procedures led Vesalius to emphasize practical research as principal avenue for understanding human anatomy
1543: published On the Fabric of the Human Body after graduating in 1536 from University of Padua
focused on human dissection—illustrated organs and general structures of human body
hands-on approach to study of anatomy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
revolution of heavenly bodies, sun-centered; it was Nicholas Copernicus’ philosophy (1473-1543)
the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around a stationary Sun at the center of the universe. Copernicus used this theory.
Copernicus’s idea that the universe consisted of eight spheres with motionless sun at center and sphere of fixed stars at rest in 8th sphere
Planets revolve around sun in this sequence: Mercury, Venus, the earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn.
The moon revolved around the earth.
Earth rotates daily on its axis around the sun. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1564- 1642) perfected telescope 1608, discovered Jupiter’s moons and sun spots and observed “imperfect” lunar surface; wrote Letter to Grand Duchess Christina (1615): defends free inquiry against accepted Biblical view; was put on trial, A Dialogue between the Two Great Systems of the World (1632) a controversial text in which traditional (and church) view comes off poorly; must recant Heliocentric Ideas, put on house arrest and continued to research math
in 1633 Galileo said that the earth and ever other planet moved around the sun. He was found guilty of harrasee and renounced his discoveries to save his life. He muttered on the way out the courtroom however the earth does move. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1642-1727) invented differential calculus to help prove his ideas, The Mathematics Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687), known as Principia, “Universal Law of Gravitation”, the idea that the universe is a great clock and God is the Great Clockmaker
1642-1727 Invented calculus wrote the famous Principia inventing or discovering and writing the law of gravity.
Attended Cambridge University
Invented calculus, began investigation into the composition of light, inaugurated his work on law of universal gravitation
Wrote Principia in mid 1680’s
Was made president of the Royal Society in 1703 and knighted in 1705 for his achievements—eventually became only English scientist to be buried in Westminster Abbey
Was interest in occult world (magical and mystical world) but was considered a symbol of Western science
Universal Law of Gravitation: culmination of theories by Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo
Explained why planetary bodies did not go off in straight line by continued in elliptical orbits about the sun.
Every object in universe was attracted to every other object with a force of gravity that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1530-1596) The Six Books of the Commonwealth (1576), king = “God’s image on earth...” talked about the divine right of the kings
1530–1596 Late 16th century political theorist believed that sovereign power consisted of the authority to make laws, tax, administer justice, control the state admin system and determine foreign policy. These six made a ruler sovereign.
late 16th century political theorist (1530-1596)
Believed sovereign power consisted of the authority to make laws, tax, administer justice, control state’s administrative system, and determine foreign policy.
The Six Books of Commonwealth (1576)
The King is considered god’s image on earth |
|
|
Term
| True Law of a Free Monarchy- |
|
Definition
(1598) a political treatise written to combat the Calvinist theory of government; it sets forth the doctrine of the divine right of kings and of the king's responsibility to God alone
A treatise or essay of political theory by James VI of Scotland (later crowned as James I of England)
Written to set forth royal absolutism and its divine sanction. Sets terms for disputes about sovereignty, divine right, and role of parliaments and subjects. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1603-1625) King of Scotland first, Divine Right (book he wrote on his power)
James the sixth of Scotland Became James the I of England cousin to queen Elizabeth. James took over the thrown from 1603-1625. espoused the Devine right of Kings.
King of Scots as James VI (July 1567)
Was 13 months—gained full control of his government in 1583.
King of England and Ireland as James I (1603) until his death
England and Scotland were individual states but both run by James in personal union.
Firm believer in the Divine Right of Kings
Kings are like fathers to their people; forgiving, caring, stern. People should obey their kings as children do their fathers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1588-1679) wrote Leviathan, England’s in a civil war, that’s why his view on man is so negative; to relieve the State of Nature, people must confer power onto one all powerful entity, gov’t kills you if you step out of line otherwise you have anarchy
published the Leviathan in 1651 explaining that we need a mortal leader to avoid the war of every man against every man. A single ruler where subjects obey.
English political thinker
Claimed that before society was organized, humans were guided by animalistic instincts and a ruthless struggle for self-preservation rather than by reason and moral ideals.
He thought that subjects should not rebel; if they do they must be suppressed—believed in commonwealth in which collective power was placed into the hands of a sovereign authority or ruler. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1651) competition, glory, they want power & greedy, steal things
Written by Thomas Hobbes it explains how humans guided by animalistic instincts need a single leader to avoid chaos. The best way is to have a single ruler who serves as executor, legislator and judge. Subjects may not rebel if they do they must be suppressed.
Written by Hobbes
About absolute authority over its subjects
State of nature: people are always at war with one another
To save subjects from destroying each other in a struggle for self-preservation, people contracted to form a commonwealth “that great Leviathan to which we owe our peace and defense”.
Subjects shouldn’t rebel |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
gov’t is a contract entered into freely by individuals to protect their natural rights; need property to vote, only 2-3% of population
associated with Locke and founders of American republic (17th century)
Idea that government can and should be legally limited in its powers—authority depends on its observing these limitations.
All states must have some acknowledged means of constituting and specifying the limits placed upon three basic forms of government power: legislative (making new laws), executive (implementing laws), judicial (making decisions regarding disputes under laws)
Lecture definition: government is a contract entered into freely by individuals to protect their natural rights |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1632-1704) very important philosopher, Two Treatises of Civil Government (1689), worked with Earl of Schaftesbury against Stuarts and James II (Exclusion Crisis- getting James II, the catholic, out of monarchy), Essay Concerning Human Understanding
1632-1704 had opposing views to Thomas Hobbes and felt that their should not be absolute rule of one man. Believed in equality amongst humans. Locke believed in the land owners as equals not landless masses.
widely known as the Father of Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers.
Argued against absolute rule of one man
Wrote the Two Treatises of Civil Government (published in 1689)
Believed humans used to live in a state of quality and freedom rather than a state of war as Hobbes stated. Humans had certain inalienable natural rights –to life, liberty, and property
There was difficulty protecting these rights
Mutually agreed to establish a government to ensure the protection of these rights
For Locke, the community of people was primarily the landholding aristocracy who were represented in Parliament, not the landless masses
His ideas were used to support demands for constitutional government, the rule of law, and the protection of rights
On paternalism: paternal authority is not permanent, but limited.
Role of Civil Society: people in state of nature (freedom) protect themselves and their property by agreeing to live in political/civil society
Mutual consent is key
Absolutists live outside this civil society |
|
|
Term
| Essay Concerning Human Understanding- |
|
Definition
1689 human beings have the capacity more than we are born; inspired belief progress is possible for a person
Written by John Locke
Concerns the foundation of human knowledge and understanding
Mind at birth is described as a blank slate (tabula rasa) filled later through experience
Essay was one of principal sources of empiricism in modern philosophy and influenced enlightenment philosophers like Hume and Berkeley |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
William and Mary accept the crown with conditions (Bill of Rights, Toleration Act- est. religious freedom to practice, Act of Settlement), limitations on parliamentary “freedom”
1688 seven prominent English nobleman invited William of Orange husband of James daughter mary to invade England. He does and they take over as monarchs. Basically Parliament choose who to have as monarch, kicked out James and put in William and mary.
William and Mary accept crowns with conditions:
Declaration of Rights (Bill of Rights)
The Toleration Act (1689): granted Puritan Dissenters the right of free public worship (Catholics still excluded) although they did not yet have full civil and political equality
End of 17th century struggle between kind and parliament
Parliament demolished divine right theory of kingship and confirmed its right to participate in the government |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1689) Kings could only have power if they asked Parliament, property was secure, and parliament had to be called at least once in 7 years
William and mary were given the thrown if they agreed to provisions of a declaration of rights later enacted into the Bill of rights. affirmed parliaments right to make laws and levy taxes and impossible for king to oppose or without parliament raise armies.
Affirmed Parliament’s right to make laws and levy taxes and made it possible for kings to oppose or do without Parliament by stipulating that standing armies could be raised only with consent of Parliament.
King could not interfere in elections and debates of Parliament
Right of citizens to petition the sovereign, keep arms, have a jury trial, and not be subject to excessive bail were also confirmed
Laid foundation for constitutional monarchy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1701) after Anne (Mary’s sister, of William and Mary, protestants, took over her dad James II’s reign) they picked her cousin George I to be the next king b/c he was a good protestant
Act to settle the succession to the English throne on the Electress Sophia of Hanover (James I granddaughter) and her Protestant heirs.
To strengthen guarantees for ensuring parliamentary system of government
Strengthened Bill of Rights which had previously established the order of succession for Mary II’s heirs
Bill of Rights became important for evolution of constitutional monarchy at this point |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1585-1642) servant to Louis XIII, centralized authority at the expense of Nobles: Intendants, cracked down on Huguenots, France mostly Catholic but minority are Huguenots (Calvinist Protestants); opposed Hasburgs in 30 Years War therefore expanding French territory
Cardinal and chief minister of King Louis XIII who was just a boy. Key figure in a strong monarchy in France. crushed aristocratic conspiracies, eliminated private armies, and fortified cities of the Huguenots.
Louis XIII’s chief minister from 1624 to 1642
Initiated policies that eventually strengthened the power of the monarchy
Transformed Huguenots into more reliable subjects (eliminated their political and military rights)
Developed an efficient network of spies to uncover noble plots and then crushed the conspiracies and executed conspirators—eliminating major threats to royal authority
To reform and strengthen central administration, he sent out intendants (royal officials) to execute the orders of the central government
Confronted Habsburg in Thirty Years’ War which forced France into deeper and deeper debt |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1602-1661) “assisted” the French Queen, Anne of Austria, during the minority of Louis XIV, policies led to The Fronde ; helped 10 yr old Louis until he died, after his death Louis wanted to rule alone
cardinal and Cardinals Richelieu’s trained successor and chief minister when King Louis the XIV was also just 4 years old.
Assisted the French Queen, Anne of Austria, when Louis XIV was only 4 years old (unable to dominate the government)
Richelieu’s trained successor
attempted to carry on his policies until his death
the Fronde occurred during his rule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1648-53) led by angry Nobles, series of rebellions: taxes, welfare, economic uncertainties
was a civil war in France, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The word Fronde means sling, which Parisian mobs used to smash the windows of supporters of Cardinal Mazarin.
The Fronde was divided into two campaigns, the Fronde of the parlements and the Fronde of the nobles.
The 1st Fronde (1648-1649)/2nd (1650)
1st Fronde broke out in Paris and was ended by compromise.
2nd Fronde begun in 1650 and was led by nobles of the sword (whose ancestors were medieval nobles)
wanted to overthrow Mazarin to secure their positions and increase their own power
this Fronde was crushed by 1652 because nobles began fighting with each other rather than Mazarin
After the 2nd Fronde, people decided the best hope for stability in France lay in the crown. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Louis XIV wanted to overawe the nobles by bringing them here so that they could keep power, the grounds were over the top beautiful, poor sewage system, grew their own crops, the king didn’t actually live in the palace but on the grounds somewhere else, the King’s Council- handpicked noblemen, mostly rich, nobles really wanted to be a part of this
Louie XIV spent untold sums of money on the construction of a new royal residence at Versailles. The enormous place housed the members of the kings government and served as homes to thousands of french nobles. The largest royal residence in Europe
Louis XIV built this royal residence during his rule
The palace housed the members of the king’s government and served as home for thousands of French nobles.
Also served as a reception hall for state affairs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
preliminary crackdown, Louis revoked Edict of Nantes (1685- it ended religious wars, it allowed non-catholic Christians to practice openly), since being revoked Protestants fled to England and told stories about how they were treated by the French (Britain didn’t like Catholism)
is what the French Calvinists were called. Possibly 40-50% of the French Nobility became Huguenots but only 10% of the total population. Opposed by Catholic’s.
16th and 17th centuries
Members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France
Louis XIV did not want to allow Protestants to practice their faith in largely Catholic France
Catholic laypeople support the king and rejected their legal rights, banned them from government meetings, and destroyed their churches to regain Catholic control |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1619-1683) mercantilism- gov’t activity in economic enterprises, “Bullion”- concept of money is based on hard money (gold silver), zero-sum mentality- one gains, one loses; encouraged domestic production; expanded overseas empire: New France (such as Wisconsin)
controller of general finances for King Louis the XIV. He helped to develop systems to make governmental money like manufacturing shipping and textiles.
Controller general of finances
Sought to increase the wealth and power of France through general adherence to mercantilism
Stressed government regulation of economic activities to benefit the state
To decrease need for imports and increase exports, he attempted to expand the quantity and improve quality of French manufactured goods.
Expanded overseas empire: New France |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(1689-1725) traveled incognito and tried to bring western ideas back with him; engages in war with Sweden, Russia becomes more stable and a player in Europe after the war, army became very good; centralized power
1689-1725 6feet 9 inches tall he wanted to westernize Russia especially in technical skills. Foremost goal was the creation of a strong army and navy to make Russia a great power. given credit for forming the first russian navy. Freed women's ability to marry of there own free will, split russia into 8 sections and eventually 50 states. Wanted to european power and gadgets for his backwards country.
Made a trip to the West and returned to Russia with hopes to westernize/Europeanize his country
Admired European technology and desired to transplant these to Russia
In an effort to make Russia a great power
Built an army of 210,000 men, created the first Russian navy
Imposed the rule of a centralized government like the West—divided Russia into 8 provinces, later into 50.
Adopted western mercantalistic policies to stimulate economic growth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 1st estate: clergy= power
2nd estate: aristocracy = Privilege (feudal dues; tax breaks;
property & hunting rights) (life style: often lavish,
rank: Duke, Marques, Earl, Vicount, Barron)
3rd estate: everyone else= work
Widest variation; Peasants: East (serfs) vs. West
(tenant farmers); Town/city dwellers:
Professionals, shopkeepers, “Middling sorts” the
poor; drank a lot of beer and ate a lot of bread,
soups, veggies
Prior to the French Revolution the population was divided into three estates
First Estate - clergy 130,000 people and 10% of the land
Second Estate nobleman 350,000 people owned 25-30% of the land
Third Estate - commoners 75-80 % of the total population of 27 million and owned 35-40% of the land.
late 18th century
1st estate: clergy = power
130,000 people
church owned 10% of the land
2nd estate: nobility/aristocracy = privilege
350,000
owned about 25 to 30% of land
held leading roles in government, military, law courts, and higher church offices
feudal dues (work that you owed), tax breaks, property and hunting rights
lavish lifestyle, varied but rich diet, traveled often
3rd estate: commoners/everyone else = work
owned 35 to 40% of land
peasants constituted 75 to 80% of total population
East vs West
West was relatively more free (didn’t own land, could rent)
East=more restricted
big variations from person to person regarding occupation, wealth, and education
town-city dwellers, professional, shopkeepers, the poor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The Americas manufactures Europe
Raw materials
Africa
European merchant ships (England, France, Spain Portugal and Dutch) carried goods like guns, gin, and cloth to africa, got slaves and sold them to the america’s for tobacco molasses, sugar, rum, coffee, and raw cotton to be sold in European markets.
15th century onward
Connected the Americas, Europe, and Africa (Atlantic economy)
Africa shipped slave to the Americas, the Americas shipped raw materials to Europe, and Europe shipping finished products to both the Americas and Africa
Sugar trade increased quickly and dramatically as a result |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
semiprivate meetings in homes of aristocrats, women were key organizers (Madame Geoffrin), philosophes & artists wanted to participate, had to impress the women who put it together to make it there
elegant drawing rooms in urban houses of the wealthy where they invited philosophers and guests gathered to engage in witty sparkling conversations often centered on society. They were important for bringing together writers and artists, with aristocrats and government officials. Huge part of the Enlightenment.
began in the 17th century
Elegant drawing rooms in the urban houses of the wealthy where invited philosophes and guests gathered to engage in witty, sparkling conversations that centered on idea of the philosophes
Important in bringing writers, artists, aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy bourgeoisie together
Women were key organizers/hostesses of these events
While they ran the events, the reputation of the salon depended on the stature of the males a hostess was able to attract
Women managed to influence decisions of kings and sway political opinion, although many people did not care for their input
Largely due to this, salons declined during the French Revolution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Grand Lodge founded in London (1717), membership was diverse, stressed equality (mostly men but some women auxiliaries), growth: mid-century in all major cities & 10,000 members, ceremonial & political dimensions: rationalism, constitutionalism, elections
Secret society sympathatic to the idea’s of philosophers and created in 1717 in london and spread from there. Often thought of as a society that is secretly running the country, most famous Free masons, George Washington, Ben Franklin and Thomas Jefferson from an American standpoint. Along with many scientists, kings, and presidents. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| major concept for enlightenment thinkers. There are two ways to think about progress: 1) improving conditions in the present (optimistic), and 2) human progress, progress of human mind, current society is best |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In 1784 German philosopher defined the Enlightenment as mans’s leaving his self caused immaturity. He proclaimed the motto of Enlightenment as “Dare to Know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence.” (“What is Enlightenment?” reading) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| most famous for the 28th volume encyclopedia or classified dictionary of the sciences arts and trades. Hated the Christians and wrote against many religion, died an essentially a materialist saying this world is only a mass of molecules. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a “collection of knowledge” work by (the philosophe) Diderot (1751-1765). Originally he was simply supposed to translate someone else’s work but he instead transformed the work by collecting all the active writers, ideas, and knowledge. This new version was considered unorthodox and had many forward-thinking ideas for the time. Diderot wanted all people to further their knowledge even though the work was considered a controversy and he was often persecuted and deserted by friends. This is significant in history because book making criticized the limits on power of commoners. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1723-1790 Scottish philosopher who wrote The Wealth of Nations. He laid the foundations for the economic liberalism in the nineteenth century. |
|
|
Term
| Francois - Marie de Voltaire |
|
Definition
| 1694-1778 the greatest figure of the Enlightenment success as a playwright and the Philosophic letters also the writer of our book we read Candide. Well known for his criticism of traditional religion and his support of religious toleration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Voltaire’s highly intelligent woman friend. Thought to have help Volatire understand high levels of physics. Should probably be given more credit in Voltaire’s works. She is significant because this demonstrates the level of sexism that existed at the time. (i.e., women weren’t considered rational) |
|
|
Term
| Philosophical Letters on the English Nation. |
|
Definition
| written in 1733 expressed a deep admiration of English life especially freedom of the press, political freedom and religious toleration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| French nobleman who published Spirit of the Laws in Holland because the ideas in it were critical of the French system (i.e. probably would be censored). For example he would write allegories about travelers from Persia visiting Europe and writing letters back home commenting on things they see (i.e. religious intolerance, etc.). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| book written by Montesquieu that inspired Jeffereson, Madison, etc. It highlighted the importance of the separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial) and checks and balances. He also emphasized the importance of both of these things working together. (republic/monarchy dichotomy) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| abandoned as a kid, wins essay contest, works way into salon culture. He was in the second wave of thinkers, balancing between emotion and reason. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| written by Rousseau. He theorized about the best way in which to set up a political community. Progressive work that helped inspire political reforms or revolutions in Europe, especially France. The book argued against the idea that monarchs were divinely empowered to legislate. According to him, only the people have that right. Work is similar to Locke in many way |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
king of Prussia (1740-1786). Fred was a proponent of enlightened absolutism. Correspondent of Voltaire. He modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and promoted religious tolerance. For example, he modernized and united his disconnected land. He fought many wars against Austria and had a rivalry against the empress of Austria,
Maria Theresa. (why the rivalry?) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| This is Maria Theresa (empress of Austria’s son). Joseph is considered the Holy Roman Emperor from 1765-1790, and ruler of the Habsburg lands from1780-1790. He came into power after Maria died and attempted to realize his ideal of enlightened despotism (absolutism). Using this reasoning he spread education and worked to “free” the peasantry. He was met with significant opposition which ultimately made him fail to fully implement his programs. Ranked as one of the three great Enlightenment monarchs (with Catherine II and Fred II). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Issued by Joseph II in 1781, an edict that extended religious freedom to non-Catholic Christians living in Habsburg lands, including Lutherans, Calvinists, and the Greek Orthodox. These minority faiths were now legally allowed to hold “private religious exercises” in clandestine churches. This patent was followed by the Edict of Tolerance in 1782. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Italian jurist, philosopher, and politician best known for his work On Crimes and Punishments (1764). His book condemned torture and the death penalty. He condemned the death penality on two grounds: 1) state does not possess the right to take lives, and 2) capital punishment is neither a useful nor a necessary form of punishment. Beccaria cites Montesquieu and advocates for judiciary reform. This book was read by Adams and Jeffereon and influenced thinking on criminal justice and punishment of offenders, leading to reforms in Europe, especially in France and at the court of Catherine II of Russia. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| author of the pamphlet “what is the third estate?” (basically became the manifesto of the Revolution) The pamphlet played a key role in the shaping of revolutionary thought and helped propel France towards the French Revolution. He challenged the hierarchical order of society by redefining who represented the nation. Sieyes was a representative of the Third Estate during the Estates General meeting in May 1789 (used pamphlet during this). He instigated the coup detat, where general Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the French Directory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| French playwright and political feminist activist. She was an outspoken advocate for improving the condition of slaves in the colonies as of 1788. Additionally, she wrote political pamphlets. She demanded French women be given the same rights as French men. She wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen. She was eventually executed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one of the best-known and influential figures of the French Revolution (fine orator, championed the cause of the poor). He participated in the Committee of Public Safety and was instrumental during the Reign of Terror part of the French Revolution. He thought terror was virtuous because it attempted to maintain the Revolution and the Republic. Robespierre was in opposition to war with Austria because he thought internal stability of the country was more important. He warned against the threat of dictatorship and argued for the welfare of common soldiers. He was elected as first deputy for Paris to the National Convention. Robespierre remains a controversial figure. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| created in April 1793 in France during the Reign of Terror. Its role was to protect the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. The committee was given proud supervisory powers over military, judicial, and legislative efforts. Its power peaked under the leadership of Robespierre, following his downfall, the committee’s influence diminished. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Moved to England and served many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party. Mostly remember for his support of the American Revolutionaries and for his later opposition to the French Revolution. His opposition to the French Revolution led to his becoming the leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig party. He is generally viewed as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism as well as a representative of classical liberalism. Burke believed that property was essential to human life. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| French politician, engineer, and mathematician. Active in the army (engineer) during the French Revolution and did not oppose the Reign of Terror. Survived and maintained a place of power during all the phases of the French Revolution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women’s rights. Best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) where she argues that women are not naturally inferior to en, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason. She really rose to the moment to given women a political voice. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Body of five Directors that held executive power in France following the Convention and preceding the Consulate. (Nov 1795-Nov 1799). This is the second to last stage of the French Revolution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| French civil code established under Napoleon in 1804. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs go to the most qualified. The code stressed clearly written and accessible law, replaying previous patchwork of feudal laws. Some claim that it is one of the few documents that have influenced the whole world. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1801 Agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. It solidified the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of France and brought back most of its civil status. Now, Napoleon could win favor with the Catholics within France while also controlling Rome in a political sense. |
|
|
