o   Rise of the Nazis

§  1921-1923 – Hitler organizes Nazi party

·         Themes: Germany betrayed, strength of Germany, hatred of Jews

·         Tools: flags, badges, uniforms, special newspaper; special police force (Storm Troopers)

§  1923 – Failed attempt to seize power by force

·         Short prison sentence (eight months) – Mein Kampf

·         Gives up gaining power by force

§  1925-1933 – Hitler, Nazis work through political system

·         Party membership: 27,000 (1925) à 178,000 (1933)

·         1930 – Nazis win significant seats in Reichstag

·         1932 – Nazis largest party in Germany

§  1933 – Hitler becomes Chancellor

·         Reichstag gives Hitler broad powers

·         Response to Hitler’s personality, Nazis power, fears of economic crisis and communism

§  1934 – Hitler absolute ruler in Germany

·         Hitler’s Policies (1934-1939)

o   Encourages fascist program

§  Public events (rallies, parades, speeches)

§  Youth groups – athletics, brainwashing

§  Attacked opposition – Gestapo (secret police); Waffen-SS – elite military force

o   Rearms Germany

§  Actions

·         1935 – new air force

·         1935 – army increased to 550,000 men

·         1936 – troops into Rhineland

§  Effect

·         Economic growth

·         Show allies won’t confront militarily to stop him

·         Makes Hitler more bold

o   Expands Territory

§  Actions

·         1938 – Annexation of Austria

·         1938 – Annexation of Sudetenland (German-speaking Czechoslovakia)

·         1939 – Occupies most of Czechoslovakia

§  Effect

·         Allies respond with appeasement

·         Eventually see that the war is coming

o   Non-aggression pact with Russia

§  Both sides to remain neutral if other attacked

§  Secret agreement to divide up Eastern Europe into areas of control

§  Meant to keep Germany from having to fight a two-front war

§  Fed desire of Germany and Russia for territory

·         War and Nazi expansion (1939-1942)

o   Germany and Russia invade Poland

§  France

o   Hitler conquers Netherlands, Belgium, and France

§  Combination of rapid tank and air attack (blitzkrieg) is decisive

§  French surrender

§  English evacuate from continent

o   Battle of Britain Prevents conquest of Britain

§  Germans seek air superiority prior to invasion

§  British air force wins victory – standing nearly alone

§  Germans begin bombing civilians in London – disturbing pattern in WWII

o   Russia joins allies because of German surprise attack

§  Hitler’s motivations

·         Remove British hope of Russian support

·         Thought victory would be fairly easy

·         Wanted oil reserves, agriculture

§  Effect

·         Initial rapid advance

·         Stopped at Stalingrad – almost 1 million lost at Stalingrad

·         Russians start pushing Germans back

o   Germany declares war on the US

§  United States declared war on Japan after pearl Harbor (7 Dec. 1941)

§  Germany declares war on US on 11 Dec. 1941

§  Hitler probably figured that conflict with US was inevitable

·         Doubts and New Directions (early 1900s)

o   Albert Einstein – theory of relativity (1906) (physics)

§  Called into question the idea that space and time are fixed categories

§  Approach speed of light, time slows down

§  Impacts physics, makes people question basic categories

o   Foundation of Anti-Semitism

§  History of discrimination against/persecution of Jews in Europe based on religion, economic success

§  Nazis – make Jewishness racial, blame Jews for Germany’s problems

§  1933: Jews make up 1% of German population

·         International Relations (1815-1914)

o   1815-1850 – Relatively peaceful balance of power

§  Key goal of the Congress of Vienna (1815)

·         Kind to the French

·         Territory to Austria and Prussia to balance Russia

§  Concert of Europe – led by Metternich

·         France, Austria, Russia, Prussia (England stands off)

·         Cooperate with each other to keep rulers, boundaries in place

·         Intervene in Spain and Greece

§  Britain dominant, Russia a rising star

o   1850-1870 – Balance of power starts to shift

§  Crimean War (1853-1856) – fought over Crimean peninsula (formerly under Ottoman control)

·         Pits Russia against England and France

·         Marks breakdown of Concert of Europe

·         No support from Austria-Hungary; breaks relations with Russia

·         Russian defeat leads to increased pan-Slavism

§  Growing power of Prussia

·         Defeat of Austrians (1866)

·         Defeat of France (1871)

·         Germany unified under Prussia surpasses England and Russia as dominant force in Europe

o   Battle of Britain Prevents conquest of Britain

§  Germans seek air superiority prior to invasion

§  British air force wins victory – standing nearly alone

§  Germans begin bombing civilians in London – disturbing pattern in WWII

o   The Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1950)

§  USSR cuts off traffic to Berlin

§  Hopes to make Berlin, all of Germany communist

§  Allies supply Berlin by air

§  Airlift succeeds, blockade fails

§  Germany divided in West (capitalist) and East (communist)

o   Berlin Wall

§  East/West German border closed in 1952

§  Berlin still divided

§  People escape from East to West Berlin

§  Communist East German government builds wall

§  Chartists

·         Push for universal manhood suffrage

·         Present petition (with many forged names) to Parliament

·         Fail in their efforts

·         Universal manhood suffrage finally achieved in 1918

o   Russians get the bomb (1949)

§  US surprised

§  Nuclear weapons, alliance make open war too costly

§  Series of conflicts, but no open war

o   The Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1950)

§  USSR cuts off traffic to Berlin

§  Hopes to make Berlin, all of Germany communist

§  Allies supply Berlin by air

§  Airlift succeeds, blockade fails

§  Germany divided in West (capitalist) and East (communist)

o   Failed Hungarian Uprising

§  Death of Stalin (1953) gives hope of freedom

§  Violent revolt lasts 2 months

§  Soviet troops invade, crush revolt

§  Shows Soviet military behind East European governments

§  West does nothing

o   Berlin Wall

§  East/West German border closed in 1952

§  Berlin still divided

§  People escape from East to West Berlin

§  Communist East German government builds wall

o   Prague Spring

§  Czech government tries to increase freedoms of speech and press, political participation

§  Non-violent reform movement

§  Soviet troops invade, suppress movement by force

• Farms where peasants were moved under the policies of Lenin and Stalin
• Under Lenin, caused economic disaster
• Under Stalin, millions died as he starved those who didn't cooperate

• Influence of colonies by superpowers
• Decreased as a result of WWII
  • Europe couldn't control colonies
  • African and Asian nations gain independence
  • US and USSR seek influence in the colonies (independent nations)

• Form of government in which the government works for the good of all people, not the good of the individual 
• Adopted by Lenin (war communism)
  • Government took over industry
  • Peasants moved to collective forms
  • Resulted in economic disaster
  • Eventually, Lenin retreats from it
• Totalitarian communism the government of the Soviet Union
• Fall of communism 
  • Communist crisis in mid-1980s
    • Economic - poor economics, few available goods
    • Political - people wanted voice in government
    • Military - arms race too expensive; Afghanistan war too costly
  • Gorbachev's Reforms
    • Economic - USSR more capitalist
    • Political - more openness, some criticism of gov.
    • Military - limits nukes, withdraws from Afghanistan, reduces Soviet army, no longer backs European governments

§  Key goal of the Congress of Vienna (1815)

·         Kind to the French

·         Territory to Austria and Prussia to balance Russia

§  Crimean War (1853-1856) – fought over Crimean peninsula (formerly under Ottoman control)

·         Pits Russia against England and France

·         Marks breakdown of Concert of Europe

·         No support from Austria-Hungary; breaks relations with Russia

·         Russian defeat leads to increased pan-Slavism

• 1894
• Third Republic of France
• Caused crisis
• Liberals gain influence and institute separation of church and state

o   Government system is totalitarian fascist under the Nazis

§  Totalitarianism in common with USSR

§  Fascist ultra-nationalism

·         Policies aimed at increasing power of nation

·         My nation is better than yours (not just my nation’s good)

·         Hatred of minority groups – seen as corrupting nation’s purity (e.g. Jews)

§  Fascist positive view of violence

·         Violence not just a necessary means

·         Violence a good thing in itself – strengthens, purifies

o   President Wilson outlines a plan for peace (The Fourteen Points) – Jan. 1918

§  Modest territorial adjustments

·         Germany gives up limited territory

·         Colonies have a say in their own future

§  Policies facilitating openness and peace among nations

§  International organization to keep peace

§  1914 – Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated by supporter of Serbia; no efforts to stop this conflict

·         A growing feeling that conflict was inevitable

·         Nationalism and confidence in quick victory

·         No awareness of the waiting slaughter

·         The Beginning of the War

o   Chain Reaction: Assassination  of Archduke Ferdinand à Europe-wide war

§  Assassination places Austria-Hungary and Serbia at war

§  Germany backs Austria-Hungary; Russia backs Serbia

§  Germany invades Belgium and France (to avoid 2-front war)

§  Great Britain joins France and Russia

§  August 1914 – major European powers at war

Doubts and New Directions (early 1900s)

o   Friedrich Nietzsche – transvaluation of values (philosophy)

§  Challenges traditional Christian morality – mercy, humility, kindness

§  Labels it “slave morality,” says it limits human achievement

§  Affirms a morality based on freedom and strength 

o   The Allied Effort – invasion of southern Europe

§  Sought to conquer “soft underbelly” (idea of Winston Churchill)

§  Landing at Gallipoli – poorly planned and executed

§  100,000 wounded and dead – effort fails

o   1929 – U.S. suffer major economic crisis (Great Depression)

§  Depression triggered by stock market crash

§  People can’t pay back money they borrowed to buy stocks

§  Banks fail

§  US stops lending money, demands repayment of debts

§  Exception: Ireland

·         Over ½ of population dependent on potatoes

·         Great Famine (1845-1851) – fungus wipes out potato crop

·         1 million people die, 2 million people leave

·         Irish population decline into 20^th century 

·         The Holocaust

o   Foundation of Anti-Semitism

§  History of discrimination against/persecution of Jews in Europe based on religion, economic success

§  Nazis – make Jewishness racial, blame Jews for Germany’s problems

§  1933: Jews make up 1% of German population

o   Discrimination and Terror (1933 and 1939)

§  Boycott of Jewish businesses

§  1935 – laws deny citizenship to Jews, forbid marriage of Jews and Germans

§  1938 – beginning of violent attacks

§  Jews forced to live in special neighborhoods (ghettos), wear special clothing

§  Two-thirds of Jews leave Germany

o   Death Squads

§  Early attempt to eliminate Jewish populations

§  Special killing squads (Einsatzgruppen) sent out to kill Jews – bury in mass graves

§  Nazis decide this method is not fast enough

o   Death Camps

§  Viewed as more efficient

§  Isolation in ghettos à transfer to death camps

§  Auschwitz: 6,000 killed per day in gas chambers, incinerated in furnaces

§  10 million killed in death camps

o   Nuremberg Trials

§  First time national leaders put on trial for war crimes

§  12 sentenced to death, 2 commit suicide

§  Tragedy dwarfs response

     Unequal relation between countries (either direct political control, or indirect economic exploitation

·         Technological (Second Industrial) Revolution (1850-1914)

o   Steel – alloy of iron

§  Stronger and more flexible than iron

§  Bessemer process (1855) allows cheap, mass-produced steel

§  Between 1860 and 1913, steel-making in Europe increases by 250x

o   Electricity – new source of power

§  Travelled on its own

·         Communications

·         Powered streetcars and subways

§  Converted easily in light, heat – electric lights replaced by gas lights (1870s)

§  Flexible – used to power machines (e.g. conveyor belts, cranes) in a factory setting

o   Internal combustion engine

§  Made possible by gasoline – made from petroleum

§  Makes possible the automobile and airplane

o   Mass production

§  Interchangeable parts (e.g. guns) – starts late 1700s, but spreads widely in 1800s

Assembly line and mass production – developed by Ford between 1908-1915

o   Mass production

§  Interchangeable parts (e.g. guns) – starts late 1700s, but spreads widely in 1800s

§  Assembly line and mass production – developed by Ford between 1908-1915

§  Trade Unions

·         Associations of skilled workers – e.g. coal miners, textile workers

·         Originally focus on controlling entry into trade, providing mutual support

·         1870s – gain right to strike, become more confrontational

·         1900s – 2 million union members into Britain (20% of workforce)

Russian leader; took control after death of Lenin in 1924

o   Stalin’s policies (1924-1953)

§  Absolute control

·         No criticism, opposition

·         Opponents killed or sent to prison camps

§  Rapid industrialization

·         Sets five-year plans for coal and machinery production

·         Successful, but means people can’t get consumer goods

§  Collective farms

·         Peasants have to move to group farms

·         Stalin starves those who resist – millions die

§  Social welfare

·         Free medical care, housing, education

·         Guarantee of employment

§  Renewed European Contact

·         1933 – US recognizes Soviet Union (USSR)

·         1934 – USSR joins league of nations

Socialist

o   Marxism – Karl Marx, Communist Manifesto (1848)

§  History a story of class struggles

§  After industrial revolution, middle class exploits working class

§  Workers will revolt, overthrow middle class/gov’t, create classless society

o   Impact of Marxism

§  Revolution did not take place – workers get more comfortable

§  Socialism form political parties – work for political change (evolution)

§  Workers remain focused on nations

o   League of Nations – International Peace Organization – 2 major flaws

§  Important nations not a part of it

·         Excluded at first, Germany joined in 1920s, Russia 1930s

·         US never joined – Wilson favored, but isolationist senators opposed

§  No provision for use of force (to back up decisions)

Leader of Russia

§  1918-1921 – Lenin adopts communist policies (war communism)

·         Government takes over industry

·         Peasants move to collective farms

·         Economic disaster results

§  1921-1923 – Lenin retreats from communism (New Economic Policy)

·         Private land ownership allowed, though government keeps control of industry

·         Russia begins to recover

·         Russia joins with surrounding nations to form Soviet Union

§  1924 – Death of Lenin, Stalin takes control

o   Liberalism – the idea that people should enjoy as much freedom as possible

§  Government protects basic rights like freedom of speech and press

§  Rights often guaranteed by a constitution

§  Role for people in making laws – don’t necessarily agree on how many people

§  Government officials should be accountable – may or may not support monarchy

§  Of six countries discussed, only England was liberal at the beginning of the period

King of France

o   July Monarchy – Louis Philippe (1830-1848) – fairly moderate

§  Accepts constitutional limits

§  Fails to respond to grievances of lower classes

§  Revolution of 1848

·         Louis-Philippe abdicates

·         Establishment of Second Republic

·         All men can vote (women gain right only in 1946)

§  Luddites

·         Traditional craftsmen threatened by industrialization

·         Try to destroy the machines themselves

·         Cause damage but cannot stop trend

Aftermath of WWII

o   Marshall Plan to support Western Nations

§  $13 billion to Western Europe

§  Meant to support democracies

§  Successful

Leader of USSR

o   Gorbachev’s Reforms (1985-1989)

§  Economic – makes USSR a little more capitalist

§  Political – a little more openness, allows some criticism of government

§  Military – limits nukes, withdraws from Afghanistan, reduces Soviet army – will no longer back Eastern European governments

o   Nationalism – idea that people who see themselves as a distinct group should form their own political unit (nation)

§  National feeling usually based on common ethnicity/language, history, culture

§  Of the six nation existing today, only three (England, France, and Russia) are similar in form to the map in 1815

§  Some have yet to unify (Italy, Germany), while others will fall apart (Austria-Hungary)

§  Growing national feeling a major force in all countries

§  Both liberalism and nationalism exemplified by American and French Revolutions

Aftermath of WWII

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

o   Formation of alliances

§  North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) – US and western Europe

Leader of second republic in France

o   Second Republic (1848-1852) becomes Second Empire (1852-1870)

§  Napoleon III elected president (1848) but soon declares himself emperor (1852)

§  Empire falls after military losses (especially to Prussia in 1870)

§  Paris Commune (1870-1871)

·         Violent struggle between radical republicans and monarchists

·         Leads to death of 20,000, exile of 10,000

Political party headed by Hitler

o   Rise of the Nazis

§  1921-1923 – Hitler organizes Nazi party

·         Themes: Germany betrayed, strength of Germany, hatred of Jews

·         Tools: flags, badges, uniforms, special newspaper; special police force (Storm Troopers)

§  1923 – Failed attempt to seize power by force

·         Short prison sentence (eight months) – Mein Kampf

·         Gives up gaining power by force

§  1925-1933 – Hitler, Nazis work through political system

·         Party membership: 27,000 (1925) à 178,000 (1933)

·         1930 – Nazis win significant seats in Reichstag

·         1932 – Nazis largest party in Germany

§  1933 – Hitler becomes Chancellor

·         Reichstag gives Hitler broad powers

·         Response to Hitler’s personality, Nazi’s power, fears of economic crisis and communism

§  1934 – Hitler absolute ruler in Germany

Lenin's economic policy

§  1921-1923 – Lenin retreats from communism (New Economic Policy)

·         Private land ownership allowed, though government keeps control of industry

·         Russia begins to recover

·         Russia joins with surrounding nations to form Soviet Union

§  1924 – Death of Lenin, Stalin takes control

Key figure in failed revolutions of 1848 in Germany

§  Otto von Bismarck key figure – Militarism over liberalism (“blood and iron” rather than speeches and voting)

§  Bismarck builds Prussian industry, wins a series of wars

§  German states submit to Prussia without guarantees of liberalism (1871)

o   Prague Spring

§  Czech government tries to increase freedoms of speech and press, political participation

§  Non-violent reform movement

§  Soviet troops invade, suppress movement by force

• Monetary compensation for the war
• Germany made to pay reparations under the Treaty of Versailles 

Utopian Socialist

•  Robert Owen – New Lanark Scotland, New Harmony, India (1820s)
• Bypass private property and competition through ideal communities
• Numbers are small, success is illusive

·         Romanticism – intellectual and cultural mood (late 1700s – mid-1800s)

o   Emphasis on emotion as path to truth

§  Contrasts with Enlightenment as path to truth

§  Contrasts with Enlightenment emphasis on reason

§  Fond of emotional books – Sorrows of Young Werther (Goethe)

§  Paintings celebrating nationalistic emotion – Third of May (Goya)

o   Emphasis on the power and unique traits of the individual

§  Ideal of the self-made man: Napoleon

§  Ideal of the artistic genius: Beethoven

§  Most people weren’t this successful

o   Love of nature

§  Reaction against industrialization

§  Nature a source of power, purity, and wisdom

§  Evident in poetry (Wordsworth) and art (Friedrich)

o   Sigmund Freud – the “unconscious” (psychology)

§  Challenges the idea that people are ruled by reason

§  Conflict of id (pleasure), superego (morality), and ego (reconciler)

Desire repressed by ego impacts action, causes psychological illness

o   Social Darwinism – “survival of the fittest” applied to society (not Darwin’s idea)

§  Poor and ill are “less fit” – helping them hurts social evolution

§  Some races are superior to others  - should be encouraged to multiply

§  Some nations are more “advanced” than others – have a right to take advantage of weaker nations

o   Steam Engine

§  Previously, water main source of external power

§  Steam engines – burns coal to produce mechanical power

§  Amount of power limited only by supply of coal

§  Location of power limited only by supply of coal

§  Suffragettes

·         Press for the right of women to vote

·         Emmeline Pankhurst and her followers use militant methods

·         No immediate success

·         Goal finally achieved in 1928

o   Telegraph and

§  Previous communication limited by speed of fastest boat/horse – 10 days to cross the US

§  Telegraph uses electrical current to send coded messages – very fast

§  Invented early 1800s (Morse version in 1836)

o   Early Evolutionary Ideas

§  Anaximander (610-546 BC) – animals emerged from the sea

§  Lamarck (1744-1829) – inheritance of acquired characteristics

§  Theories lack mechanism to explain evolution

o   Darwinism – “survival of the fittest” provides mechanism

§  More members of species born than can survive – limited food

§  Chance variations create minor differences (some more/less helpful)

§  Organisms with helpful characteristics survive to reproduce

o   Mixed reception

§  Rapidly accepted by scientists

§  Initial resistance from some religious groups

§  European churches eventually make peace with Darwinism

§  Resistance continues in the United States among conservative Protestants 

o   Albert Einstein – theory of relativity (1906) (physics)

§  Called into question the idea that space and time are fixed categories

§  Approach speed of light, time slows down

§  Impacts physics, makes people question basic categories

o   Third Republic (FRANCE) (1870-1940)

§  Monarchy gone for good (although it still had many supporters)

§  Crisis over the Dreyfus Affair (begins 1894)

•  
  •  
    •  
      • Liberals gain influence – institute separation of church and state

·         The End of the War

o   Communist get Russia out of the war – Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)

§  Keeping a promise they made

§  Releases Russia from conflict

§  Russia loses ¼ of territory in Europe (1/3 of heavy industry, ½ of coal and iron)

§  Means Germany only has to fight one-front war

§  Trade Unions

·         Associations of skilled workers – e.g. coal miners, textile workers

·         Originally focus on controlling entry into trade, providing mutual support

·         1870s – gain right to strike, become more confrontational

·         1900s – 2 million union members into Britain (20% of workforce)

§  Trenches – war of attrition (little progress, many deaths)

·         Disease, infection, rats

·         Constant shelling

·         Suicidal charges through No-Man’s Land

§  Both sides look for a way to gain advantage

o   Formation of the United Nations – corrects problems with League of Nations

§  Important nations join – including US

§  Use of military force authorized, but could be stopped by US, USSR, France, England, or China

o   The German Effort – submarine warfare

§  Wanted to knock out English support for France

§  Sought to cut off British weapons and supplies (much from US) with U-boats

§  1915: Unrestricted submarine warfare, Lusitania sunk; US protests; Germans back off

§  1917: Germany returns to unrestricted submarine warfare

·         Industrial Society – (beginning 1800)

o   Urbanization

§  3% (1800) – 10% (1900)

§  Britain and Germany more than 50% urban by 1900

§  Promoted by growth in industry – convenient to have workers in one place

§  Promoted by growth in transportation – cities can be supplied easily

§  Poor living conditions – overcrowding, poor sanitation

§  1918-1921 – Lenin adopts communist policies (war communism)

·         Government takes over industry

·         Peasants move to collective farms

·         Economic disaster results

• Part of "The New Imperialism"
• Belief that strong should help the weak

§  1890-1914 – Aggressive stance under Kaiser Wilhelm II (seeks “a place in the sun”)

·         Bismarck dismissed from power

·         Breaks alliance with Russia, leading to alliance of France and Russia

·         Antagonizes Britain: begins colonizing, builds navy

·         Zimmerman Telegram – Mexico promised US territory (Texas, New Mexico, Arizona) in exchange for alliance with Germany 

§  Growth of Zionism – effort to establish a separate nation for Jews

·         Begins in the 1880s

·         Leads to Jewish emigration in Palestine