2 phylums with pseudocoelomate and complete digestive tract

rotifera

nematoda

eutely

constant number of cells per individual 

Phlyum Rotifera 

characteristics?

-corona: circle of cillia around mouth

-mastex: muscular pharanyx with tropohi (hard, jaw like structure)

-foot with toes and adhesive glands (for attachment)

-parthenogenesis

-freshwater

parthenogenesis

amictic diploid resting eggs(females)-->environmental stimulus (spring rain or fall rain)--->diploid eggs hatch
-->produce more diploid eggs (amictic)--> (this then repeats, this is the parthenogenesis)

if, different environemental stimulus (stagnant water or frost) meiosis occurs-->haploid egg production (males)

-->haploid males-->sperm production

|                          |

->fertilization<-

                                             |->back to the beginning

Phlyum Nematoda
types?

characteristics? 

-roundworms

-complete digestive tract: tube in tube

-cuticle-->epidermis-->longitudinal muscles only-->pseudocoelomate-->gut

-unique excretory system with 1-2 renette cells (absorbs waste from the psuedocoelomate) and excretory glands (excretes the waste from the renette cells)

-reproduction: most dioecious with dimorphic individuals
-females have two uteri with ovaries and oviducts 

-males have shorter, thinner, curved posterior

Phylum Nematoda

genuses? 

-Genus Ascaris: large roundworm, lives in small intestine(swims upstream towards the stomach)

-Genus Enterobius: pinworm, females lay eggs in perianal folds at night, itching..children scratch then nom 

-Genus Necator: hookworm, attach to small intestine mucosa (lining of intestine) with hooks and drink blood

-Genus Trichinella: porkworm, lives in skeletal muscle creates a calcified cyst and small intestine of humans--moves into the skeletal muscle eventually

-Genus Wuchereria: filarial worm causes elephantitis

Phylum Mollusca

characteristics

-coelomates, protostomes

-mollis: soft body; unsegmented

-mantle covers visarul mass, secretes shell

-mantle cavity between visual mass and mantle 

-mantle cavity functions in excretion, gas exchange, egestion(releasing feces), release of gametes/embryos

-bilateraly symmetry

-schizocoelous formation of coelom

-spiral cleavage: seperation of 2 cells

-open circulatory system (except class cephalopoda) with blood vessels and hemocoel (if adomen was bathed in blood)

-radula (used for food gathering): scrapes food using odontophore (piece of cartilidge) covered in the chitinous belt

Phylum Mollusca

classes? 

Class Gastropoda

Class Bivalvia

Class Cephalopoda

Class Polyplacophora 

Class Gastropoda

characteristics? 

kinds? 

-snails, limpets, slugs

-torsion: twistin of visceral mass, mantle, mantle cavity--U shaped digestive tract

-locomotion: use flattened foot excretes mucus and slimes it's way around

-open circulatory system with hemocoel

-6 ganglia

-simple eyes at base/end of tentacles

-nephridium(kidney like structure that's used for osmoregulation [salt and water balance]): selectively reabsorbs certain ions from wastes, opens to mantle cavity

-reproduction: monoecious or dioecious

-largest mollusca class

Class Bivalvia 

types

characteristics

-two shell like structures adjoined by a hinge

-clams, mussels, oysters,a nd scallops

-2 valves (halves of the shell)

-abductor muscles pull shut 

-mantle: secretes shell CaCO3; oysters have the pearl formation

-gills: folded sheets at one end of foot

-dissolved oxygen goes in through the mantle and passes over the gills

-water: incurrent siphon--excurrent

-gills trap food brought into mantle cavity->labial palps(trap food), sort food (near mouth), rejected food-->mantle cavity and then flushed out

-reproduction: most dioecious, external fertilization

-Fresh water species: Glochidium: parasetic larva, fish gills

Class Cephalopoda

types

characteristics

-squid, octopus, Genus Nautilus, cuttlefish

-closed circulator system different than everyone else

-jet propelled: water through siphon

squids pelagic(out in open water); octopus benthic(live by caves) in dens

-squid 8 arms + 2 tentacles; octopus: 8 arms

-tentacles grasp food, arms next, then beak(both octopus and squid have)

-Genus Nautilus has 90 arms, shelled, lives in last chamber

Class Polyplacophora

characteristics

-species chitons

-8 overlapping plates, large flat foot

Phylum Annelida

characteristics

-homonomous (similar repeating segments) metamerism

-protostome; schizocoelous

-epidermal setae (number can seperate the classes)

-closed circulatory system

-dorsal supraparynx, ganglia, ventral nerve cord with segments ganglia (nerves emerging from them control the muscles)

Phylum Annelida

classes?

Class Oligochaeta 

Class Hirudinea

Class Polycheata 

Class Oligocheata and Class Hirudinea(2 suckers)

characteristics

-monoecious or hermaphroditic

-of have appendages (parapodium) flat, straight out

Class Polychaeta

characteristics

-dioecious

-leeches: segmented, coelom, closed ciruclatory syste, 2 terminal suckers

-flukes: not segmented, acoelomate, flat, no circulatory system, oral sucker (feeding) terminal but acetabulum (ventral sucker for attaching to animals) not terminal

Phylum Arthropoda

characteristics

-jointed foot animals

-chitinous exoskeleton secreted by hypodermis
advantages: protection; site for muscle attachment; reduces water loss; 1st teritary animal

-disadvantage: requires molting; molting metabolic cost (need to find enough calcium); vulnerable while molting; time required

-anterior brain, paired ventral, solid nerve cords (run down the entire body)

-open circulatory system

-dioecious: develops often by metamorphosis

(complete lepidoptera vs incomplete orthrotera)

-parthenogenesis: development of unfertilized egg

-heteronomous metamerism, with regional specialization=tagematization

Phylum Arthropoda

subphylums

Subphylum Trilobitomorpha

Subphylum Chelicerata

Subphylum Crustacea

Subphylum Myriapoda

Subphylum Hexapoda

Subphylum Trilobitomorpha

characteristics

-trilobites, extinct arthropods, dominant ancestors 

Subphylum Chelicerata

types

characteristics

-2 body regions-prosoma and opisthosoma

-first pair of appendages-chelicerae, pincerlike

-Class Merostomata: horseshoe crab, books gills

-Class Arachnida: spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, mostly teritairy, usually four pairs of legs, book lungs

-malpighian tubules absort nitrogenous wastes from blood, empty into the hindgut

-oviparous: lays eggs

some viviparous: live bearers, like humans

oviparous

vivaparous

oviviparous

lays eggs

live bearing

yolk sac, can be incubated inside mother

Subphylum Crustacea

types

characteristics

-crayfish, shrimp, crabs, lobsters, Daphnia, copepods, Mysis

-2 pair antennae, biramous appendages(splits into two)

-all crustacea are aquatic except isopods~rolli pollis

-Daphnia: parthenogensis, then males in fall, form overwintering eggs (resistant)

 Copepods : small very abundant in ocean and lakes, no compound eyes, important in food webs

Subphylum Myriapoda

types 

characteristics

-uniramous head/trunk

-Class Diplopoda: millipedes: 11-100 trunk segments, 2 pair legs/segments feed on plant litter, round in c.s. 

-Class Chilopoda=centipedes; 1 pair legs/segment, predators, flat in c.s. 

Subphylum Hexapoda

types

chracteristics

-Class Insecta

-head, thorax (3 pair legs), abdomen

-1 pair of antennae, uniramous appendages

-flight, jointed appendages, exoskeleton

-insects were first animals to fly

-mandibles chew food; foregut, mid, hind

-gas exchange by tracheae, air tubes

-excretion by malpighian tubules, empty into hindgut

-compound eyes with out ommatidia

-chemical regulation: 

1. hormomones: ecdysone (triggers molting)-->ecdysis (technical term for molting)

2. pheromones: chemicals secreted outside of the body  causes other members of the species to behave differently

-reproduction: sper in recepacle or by spermatophore("packet" of sperm, attachs to reproductive tract-also found in squids; attachs it to the mantle cavity in females-eggs are feterilized while leaving the mother), tertiary eggs as they leave

-development: larval--> chyrisilis direct (complete) metamorphism

-egg hymph-indirect metamorphism (incomplete)

Class Insecta

orders and characteristics

-Order Coleoptera: bettles, largest order, wings meet in midline of abdomen when not in flight, 25% of all species of living things

-Order Diptera: 2nd largerst order, mosquitos, flies, 1 pair wings, maggot larvae

-Order Hymenoptera: 3rd largest order, ants, bees, wasps; social insects

-Order Lepidoptera: 4th largest order, caterpillars chewing, adults sucking (nectar), mimicry(being distasteful)

Phlyum Echinodermata

characteristics

-spiny skin

-adult: pentaradial symmetry, but larva: bilateral symmetry

-water-vascular system: used in movement, attachment and feeding; can rip apart bivalves

-first tube feet; last: madreporite

-endoskeleton: CaCO3 ossicles

-Classes: sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins, sea cucumber, sea lily

Phylum Chordata

characteristics

1. notochord: semi-rigid rod located on the dorsal side, is for support-always ventral to the nerve chord

2. dorsal hollow nerve cord-spinal cord

3. pharyngal gill slits in life cycle

4. postanal tail--human's tail bone

-deuterostomes, enterocoelous, ventral heart, bilateral symmetry

Phylum Chorodata 

subphylums

Subphlyum Urochordata

Subphylum Cephalochordata

Subphylum Vertebrata

Subphylum Urochordata

chracteristics 

types

- tunicates; sea suirts(sessile); salps(very delicate; planktonic[drifting primary locomotion])

-development includes tadpolelike larva, settles to bottom, sessile adult

Subphylum Cephalochordata

types

characteristics

-tropical

-lancelets (looks like a blade knife) small; tadpolelike, marine sandy bottom dwellers (bentic)

-notochord runs length of body's ventral to the holl nerve cord

-Nekten-primary locomotion is swimming

Subphylum Vertebrata

classes

Class Agnatha; Class Chondrichthyes; Class Osteichthyes--fish

Class Amphibia

Class Reptilia

Class Aves

Class Mammalia

1.Class Agnatha

2.Class Chondrichthyes

3.Class Osteichthyes

1. sea lampreys, hagfishes

-lamprey: free living larvae in streams; parasetic adults with circular mouth, grasping teeth, no paired fins(unusual) (just dorsal and caudal)
-carilage skeleton, no jaws, 2 chambered heart (1 atrium, 1 ventricle) 

2. sharsk, skates, rays

-cartilaginous skeleton with jaws, ventral mouth(like the snout on a dog), paired fins (chest; large pectorals), placoid scales

3. bony fish

-skeleton made up for bones and cartilidge, jaws, paired fins

-Lungfish: can use lungs when low on dissolved oxygen

-Coelacant: lobed-fin fish

-Pneumatic sacs (sacs filled with gasses)-->lung, swim bladder (present in many fish, keeps the fish level

-counter current gas exchange, gill filaments (blood flows in one direction

-osmoregulation(regulation of salt and water balance) 

-gills covers (only in the Osteichthyes) operculum

Class Amphibia

-duel life: one in water; one in land

-frogs, toads, newts, mudpuppies, salamanders

-adaptation of fishes during droughts-->lungs, dual life: water and land; reproduction in water, tadpole larvae with gills; adult frog wth lungs after metamorphosis

-development of legs instead of fins, less streamlined body

most amphibians have external fertilization

-skin is moist no scales, functions in gas exchange (secondary to lungs)

-adults carnivores, tadpole larvae eat algae

Metamorphisis of frog

1. difference in diet: adults are carnivores, tadpole larvae eat algea

2. reabsorption of the tail

3. lungs in adult, gills in larvae

4. legs in adult, no legs in tadpole

hyperosmotic

hypoosmotic

-have a tendence to take in too much salt

-tends to take in more water

reasons for frog decline

ozone depletion, habitat destruction

Class Reptilia

-snakes, lizards, turtles, crocs

-amniote egg=major advance, resists desiccation: embryo + 4 extra-embryonic membranes surrounded by egg shell

-egg made 100% terrestrial life possible

-dry scaly skin, epidermal scales (develop from epidermis)

-2 pair of appendages often with five toes ending inhorny claws(absent in snakes)

-respiratory by lungs, cloacal respiratory in turtles

-3 chambered heart: 2 atria, 1 ventricle

-sexual reporduction, internal fertilization, sperm transfer organ-penis or hemipenes

amniote egg

1. yolk sac: nutrition for embryo-carbs, fats, proteins

2. amnion: fluid immediatly surrounding the embryo, function is for protection

3. allantois: embryonic waste/garbage bag

4. chorion: envelop around the embryo and extra embryonic membranes

cloacal

-structure that is like the rectum and pushes out of the anus..has to be in water

-used for respiration in turtles

-excretion and a place to harbor embryos

Class Aves

-has an amniote egg

-Archaeopteryx: transition reptile--bird

-feathers

-endothermic

-not all can fly

-hollow bones + air sacs(attached to the lungs)

-crop (instead of stomach, thin walled) stores food; gizzard (thick walled, muscular) grinds food

-pectoral appendages-->wings; plevic for walking, perching, grasp, swim; claws

-mouth with horny beak; no teeth

-4 chambered heart

-sexual reproduction with internal fertilization; penis in some

-oviparous: eggs large, shelled

-parental care after hatching

Class Mammalia

-monotremes (platapus) with egg, marsupials (kangaroos, possam) brood pouch, placentals

-mammary glands produce milke for F1

-body usually covered with hair

-diaphragm aids in respiratory by lungs

-endothermic; 4 chambered heart

-sexual reproduction with internal fertilization; penis will developed

-eggs minute, most viviparous

-extra-embryo membranes; embryo fed by placenta

2 types of cells? 

1. Prokaryotic (bacteria); no nucleus, no membrane bound organelles (example mitochondria), no mitosis, no histones, 1 chromosome

2. Eurkaryotic: nucleus, mitosis, membrane bound organelles, histone proteins, chromosomess

outside the nucleus

cytoplasm-->surrounded by cell membrane/plasma membrane (no cell walls)

cell membranes Fluid-Mosaic Model:

-phospholipid bilayer with huge proteins embedded and cholesterol for stability

cholesterol helps stability how?

-solidify cell membrane

phospholipd heads?

Phospholipd tails?

-phosphate group, hydrophilic(water loving~ex. sugar/salt)

-fatty acids; long molecules; hydrophobic(water hating~ex. oil)

Proteins

1. intergral proteins: embedded in the membrane and have channels running through them; span accross the entire cell

2. Peripheral proteins: attached inside or outside

Functions of Cell Membranes

1. regulate flow in/out of cells

2. bounds insides from outside

3. provides large surface area for chemical reactions

4. site for receptors with specific cell ID markers, differentiate 1 cell from 2nd

-cell membranes-selectively permeable base on polarity: hydrophylic head-polar; hydrophobic tail-nonpolar

Movement across membranes

 1. simple diffusion: no energy, no carrier proteins; Used for breathing..oxygen-->blood

2. facilitated diffusion: no energy, use carrier proteins(those that span across the cell membrane)

3. osmosis diffusion of H2O through selective permeable membrane; subset of simple diffusion; movement of water by simple diffusion

4. filtration: small molecules pass; large don't

5. active transfer: requires energy, carrier proteins; moves against the gradient, active transport against the concentration gradiant(example canoe going upstream versus downstream)

6. Endocytosis: bulk(many of molecules) movement of molecules across cell membrane
a. pinocytosis: cell drinking(liquid)
b. phagocytosis: cell eating(solid)

7.  exoctyosis: expel molecules out (example sweat glands)

cytoplasm

-organelles + cytosol(liquid)

Types of Organelles

1. ribosomes: protein factories, use mRNA

2. edoplasmic reticulmn: series of channels in cytoplasm helps materials circulate in cytoplasm

3. golgi apparatus: packaging, sort, export by exocytosis (like a loading dock of a factory) 

4. lysosomes: digest with chemicals (little organelles, like has with in the cell that contains very strong chemicals ues for digestion and burst open during death)

5. mitochondria: power house of cell; where most of energy in form of ATP is converted (example muscles)

6. cytoskeleton: extends through cytoplasm; makes the shape of the cell what it is

Three components of cytoskeleton

-microtubule

-intermediate filament

-microfilament

Cilia and Flagella movenment in animals

1. many like oars, not whiplike, beat rythmically (in the espohagus helps catch food and get out of the lungs)

2. few, not oars, whiplike (spermatozoa)

centrioles

-aid in setting up spindle apparatus of microtubules (proteins that are long thread like and drage the chromosomes around) during mitosis

vacuoles

-in the cytoplasm

-sacs for water or food

-contractile vacuoles: collect H2O pump water out

Nucleus

nuclear envelope

nucleolus

-information center, most DNA in chromosomes

-has ores (outside of the nucleus)

-synthesises proteins and RNA

Level of Organization

-macromolecules->membranes-->organelles-->cells-->tissues-->organs-->organ systems-->organism-->population-->community-->ecosystem-->biosphere

Epithelium Tissues

Definition?

types? 

-Epithelial: classified on shape & number of layers(lines digestive tract and respiratory tract)

!. simple squamous epithelial

2. simple cubodial epithelial-lung, kidneys

3. simple columnar epithelium-small intestines

4. pseudostrat ciliated columnar epithelial-one cell layer thick, uterus

5. stratified squamous epithelial-epidermis

Connective Tissues

types?

1. Adipose: fat; insulation, protect-kidneys

2. Loose connective tissues: binds skin to muscle-widely dispersed under the epidermis and dermis

3. Fibrous connective tissue: dense collagen-->tendon

4. Carilage: hard, flexible support--ear nose

5. Bone: (osteocytes)-L target shape

6. Blood: 600 red blood cells to 1 white blood cell

Muscle Tissue

1. Skeletal: cross striations, voluntary-multinucleated

2. smooth: no cross striations, involuntary-one nucleus

3. cardiac: cross striations, involuntary

Nervous Tissues:

used for?

-communication

-conduct in impulse, processes (dendrites, axon), soma

chormatin: 

cell cycle: 

-Interphase...condense at prophase

-mitosis, cytokinesis(pinching off the cytoplasm around the newly formed nuclei), G1, S, G2

nucleosome

-histone proteins + DNA

autosomes? 

-non sex chromosomes

mitosis?

-prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

-before prophase, interphase replicates DNA, sister chromatids are formed, and attach to the centromere

-prophase: chromosomes form, nucleus membrane dissappears (gradually), migrate-->equator by spindle apparatus between centrioles; when reach equator

-metaphase: all centriomeres on equator

-anaphase: centromeres divide-->opposite poles

-telophase: new nuclear membrane, chormosomes -->chromatin, nucleolus reappears, cytokinesis in progress

Meiosis

-gametes form; 2N-N

-meiosis 1: homologous (chromosomes are the same size, shpae, centromere in the same location~form tetrads during prophase I) synapse, tetrad of chromatids migrate to equator

-cross over: form of genetic recombination

-centormere ins metaphase I divide but don't in metaphase II

-anaphase II the chromsoms are single stranded

Reduction division

-first meiotic division

Meiosis II

-prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II

-centromeres divide (like mitosis), and then go to the poles

-spermatognesis

-spermatid under goes differentiation--spermozoa

-oogenesis

-only 2nd oocyte (ovum) is fertile

DNA and RNA:

Purine vs pyrimidine? 

G & C bonds vs A & T bonds?

DNA: double, deoxy, T, antiparallel strands, nucleic acid, replication: semiconservative, P strand = template for daughter strand 

RNA: single, ribose, U, no strandS, nucleic acid

Purine: double ring (G and A)
Pyrimidine: single ring (C and T)

G And C have triple hydrogen bonds
A and T have double hydrogen bonds 

who figured out the dna crap

Watson-Crick

protein synthesis: 

major kinds of RNA?

genetic code:

Transcription: 

-transcription and translation

-mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA (complexed with protein)

-64 mRNA codons, 3 stop codons, rest code for certain a.a. 

-DNA unzips, 1 side = template, RNA-complementary base pairing, A-U, C-G, G-C, T-A

-mrna edit, leaves nucleus,-ribosomes

Are codons in mRNA or tRNA

-mRNA

-tRNA has anticodons

What does RNA polymerase do?

-catalyzes the formation of mRNA

Translation

-tRNA brings amino acide from cytoplasm takes it to the ribosome

-one tRNA for each amino acide; amino acid attach site

-anticodon of tRNA pairs with codon, mRNA

-2nd tRNA-->ribosome, anticodon pairs with codon peptide bond formed between amino acid synthesis 

-elongation occurs then termination (stop codon)

-result: polypeptide, then protein formed

Changes in DNA & chromosomes

1. point mutation: change in nucleotide sequence: addition, deletion, replacement of nucleotides

2. nondisjuction: plus or minus one chromosome during Meiosis I or II

3. Change in chromosomes structure; chemical or radiation

Mendel's Laws

1. Law of Segregation:  every organism has pairs of factors for each trait, and factors segregate during gamete formation

2. Law of Independent Assortment:  when gametes form, alleles for one trait segregate independently of alleles of 2nd trait

scientific theory

-testable, correctable, observable and yields new information

adaptive radiation

-one species went to one island and spread out

Schizocoelus:

entercoelous:

-split in mesoderm creates coelom..happens in protostomes examples of phylums are mollusca, annelida and arthropoda

-outpocketing of the gut happens in deutorstomes examples are echinodermata, chordata